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22 pages, 2073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Vertical Navigation Using Barometric Measurements

by Shrivathsan Narayanan and Okuary Osechas

Sensors 2022, 22(23), 9263; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22239263 - 28 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2129

This paper introduces a technique to transform between geometric and barometric estimates of altitude and vice-versa. Leveraging forecast numerical weather models, the method is unbiased and has a vertical error with a standard deviation of around 30 m (100 ft), regardless of aircraft [...] Read more.

This paper introduces a technique to transform between geometric and barometric estimates of altitude and vice-versa. Leveraging forecast numerical weather models, the method is unbiased and has a vertical error with a standard deviation of around 30 m (100 ft), regardless of aircraft altitude, which makes it significantly more precise than established comparable conversion functions. This result may find application in various domains of civil aviation, including vertical RNP, systemized airspace, and automatic landing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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38 pages, 995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Customizable Stochastic High-Fidelity Model of the Sensors and Camera Onboard a Fixed Wing Autonomous Aircraft

by Eduardo Gallo and Antonio Barrientos

Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5518; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155518 - 24 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1733

Abstract

The navigation systems of autonomous aircraft rely on the readings provided by a suite of onboard sensors to estimate the aircraft state. In the case of fixed wing vehicles, the sensor suite is usually composed by triads of accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers, a [...] Read more.

The navigation systems of autonomous aircraft rely on the readings provided by a suite of onboard sensors to estimate the aircraft state. In the case of fixed wing vehicles, the sensor suite is usually composed by triads of accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers, a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, and an air data system (Pitot tube, air vanes, thermometer, and barometer), and it is often complemented by one or more digital cameras. An accurate representation of the behavior and error sources of each of these sensors, together with the images generated by the cameras, is indispensable for the design, development, and testing of inertial, visual, or visual–inertial navigation algorithms. This article presents realistic and customizable models for each of these sensors; a ready-to-use C++ implementation is released as open-source code so non-experts in the field can easily generate realistic results. The pseudo-random models provide a time-stamped series of the errors generated by each sensor based on performance values and operating frequencies obtainable from the sensor’s data sheets. If in addition, the simulated true pose (position plus attitude) of the aircraft is provided, the camera model generates realistic images of the Earth’s surface that resemble those taken with a real camera from the same pose. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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16 pages, 2154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wavelet-Based Identification for Spinning Projectile with Gasodynamic Control Aerodynamic Coefficients Determination

by Piotr Lichota, Mariusz Jacewicz, Robert Głębocki and Dariusz Miedziński

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4090; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114090 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1730

Abstract

Identification of a spinning projectile controlled with gasodynamic engines is shown in this paper. A missile model with a measurement inertial unit was developed from Newton’s law of motion and its aerodynamic coefficients were identified. This was achieved by applying the maximum likelihood [...] Read more.

Identification of a spinning projectile controlled with gasodynamic engines is shown in this paper. A missile model with a measurement inertial unit was developed from Newton’s law of motion and its aerodynamic coefficients were identified. This was achieved by applying the maximum likelihood principle in the wavelet domain. To assess the results, this was also performed in the time domain. The outcomes were obtained for two cases: when noise was not present and when it was included in the data. In all cases, the identification was performed in the passive mode, i.e., no special system identification experiments were designed. In the noise-free case, aerodynamic coefficients were estimated with high accuracy. When noise was included in the data, the wavelet-based estimates had a drop in their accuracy, but were still very accurate, whereas for the time domain approach the estimates were considered inaccurate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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13 pages, 5584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Crack Propagation Estimation Based on Direct Strain Measurement during a Full-Scale Fatigue Test

by Piotr Reymer, Andrzej Leski and Michał Dziendzikowski

Sensors 2022, 22(5), 2019; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22052019 - 4 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2135

Abstract

Military aircraft are subjected to variable loads, which are the main cause of initiation and propagation of cracks in the most stressed locations of the airframe. The aim of a Full-Scale Fatigue Test (FSFT) is to represent actual load conditions in such a [...] Read more.

Military aircraft are subjected to variable loads, which are the main cause of initiation and propagation of cracks in the most stressed locations of the airframe. The aim of a Full-Scale Fatigue Test (FSFT) is to represent actual load conditions in such a way that the results obtained are a good representation of the actual loads and may be used as data that give insight into the development of real fatigue damage in critical locations. The FSFT load spectrum is a generalized depiction of the expected service loads and is designed to give an overall good representation of loads exerted on the airframe’s structural elements during operation. Moreover, the discrete method of load application on the structure (exerting loads with hydraulic actuators rather than pressure fields or inertia loads expected in actual operation) may cause some local effects, which may not be present in operation. The proposed usage of direct strain data from the test include such local effects. Moreover, operational loads may vary between individual aircraft, therefore it is crucial to understand the whole process of fatigue crack onset and development in order to determine safe inspection intervals and thereby mitigate risk. This paper presents crack propagation calculations regarding the development of a crack in a critical location of the PZL-130 “Orlik” TC-II aircraft, discovered during FSFT. The discussed crack was found already developed, hence the information about nucleation and initial propagation of the crack was not available. Therefore, there was a need to recreate the whole propagation process by means of numerical estimations using the FSFT results like location of the crack and total life for model validation. Moreover, in order to gather real load data for calculations a dedicated stain gage was installed on the damaged load path to monitor the actual remote strain in the element during the FSFT. This allowed for the definition of load sequence exerted on the damaged element directly during the test rather than estimating it from the general load conditions of the wing. The calculations allowed for the estimation of crack propagation curves from initiation to critical crack length causing fatal damage. The obtained curves allowed to visualize the crack behavior due to applied load and furthermore define initial and recurring inspection intervals for the entire fleet during operation, which allowed to define which cracks could be found before they reach critical size in order to carry out mitigation actions like repair or replacement of the damaged part. The authors present the methodology for load spectrum development based on direct strain measurements and furthermore crack propagation curves estimation, validated with the actual FSFT results, which allowed to propose nondestructive inspection intervals for future operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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13 pages, 18348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Pressure Sensor in SOI Technology with Butterfly Wiring for Airfoil Integration

by Jan Niklas Haus, Martin Schwerter, Michael Schneider, Marcel Gäding, Monika Leester-Schädel, Ulrich Schmid and Andreas Dietzel

Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6140; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186140 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2828

Abstract

Current research in the field of aviation considers actively controlled high-lift structures for future civil airplanes. Therefore, pressure data must be acquired from the airfoil surface without influencing the flow due to sensor application. For experiments in the wind and water tunnel, as [...] Read more.

Current research in the field of aviation considers actively controlled high-lift structures for future civil airplanes. Therefore, pressure data must be acquired from the airfoil surface without influencing the flow due to sensor application. For experiments in the wind and water tunnel, as well as for the actual application, the requirements for the quality of the airfoil surface are demanding. Consequently, a new class of sensors is required, which can be flush-integrated into the airfoil surface, may be used under wet conditions—even under water—and should withstand the harsh environment of a high-lift scenario. A new miniature silicon on insulator (SOI)-based MEMS pressure sensor, which allows integration into airfoils in a flip-chip configuration, is presented. An internal, highly doped silicon wiring with “butterfly” geometry combined with through glass via (TGV) technology enables a watertight and application-suitable chip-scale-package (CSP). The chips were produced by reliable batch microfabrication including femtosecond laser processes at the wafer-level. Sensor characterization demonstrates a high resolution of 38 mVV⁻¹ bar⁻¹. The stepless ultra-smooth and electrically passivated sensor surface can be coated with thin surface protection layers to further enhance robustness against harsh environments. Accordingly, protective coatings of amorphous hydrogenated silicon nitride (a-SiN:H) and amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide (a-SiC:H) were investigated in experiments simulating environments with high-velocity impacting particles. Topographic damage quantification demonstrates the superior robustness of a-SiC:H coatings and validates their applicability to future sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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21 pages, 4072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IMUMETER—A Convolution Neural Network-Based Sensor for Measurement of Aircraft Ground Performance

by Jarosław Alexander Pytka, Piotr Budzyński, Paweł Tomiło, Joanna Michałowska, Ernest Gnapowski, Dariusz Błażejczak and Andrzej Łukaszewicz

Sensors 2021, 21(14), 4726; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21144726 - 10 Jul 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2664

Abstract

The paper presents the development of the IMUMETER sensor, designed to study the dynamics of aircraft movement, in particular, to measure the ground performance of the aircraft. A motivation of this study was to develop a sensor capable of airplane motion measurement, especially [...] Read more.

The paper presents the development of the IMUMETER sensor, designed to study the dynamics of aircraft movement, in particular, to measure the ground performance of the aircraft. A motivation of this study was to develop a sensor capable of airplane motion measurement, especially for airfield performance, takeoff and landing. The IMUMETER sensor was designed on the basis of the method of artificial neural networks. The use of a neural network is justified by the fact that the automation of the measurement of the airplane’s ground distance during landing based on acceleration data is possible thanks to the recognition of the touchdown and stopping points, using artificial intelligence. The hardware is based on a single-board computer that works with the inertial navigation platform and a satellite navigation sensor. In the development of the IMUMETER device, original software solutions were developed and tested. The paper describes the development of the Convolution Neural Network, including the learning process based on the measurement results during flight tests of the PZL 104 Wilga 35A aircraft. The ground distance of the test airplane during landing on a grass runway was calculated using the developed neural network model. Additionally included are exemplary measurements of the landing distance of the test airplane during landing on a grass runway. The results obtained in this study can be useful in the development of artificial intelligence-based sensors, especially those for the measurement and analysis of aircraft flight dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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24 pages, 4828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Control Strategies for an Autonomous Wing-In-Ground-Effect Vehicle

by Davide Patria, Claudio Rossi, Ramon A. Suarez Fernandez and Sergio Dominguez

Sensors 2021, 21(12), 4193; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21124193 - 18 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3632

Abstract

Autonomous vehicles are nowadays one of the most important technologies that will be incorporated to every day life in the next few years. One of the most promising kind of vehicles in terms of efficiency and sustainability are those known as Wing-in-Ground crafts, [...] Read more.

Autonomous vehicles are nowadays one of the most important technologies that will be incorporated to every day life in the next few years. One of the most promising kind of vehicles in terms of efficiency and sustainability are those known as Wing-in-Ground crafts, or WIG crafts, a family of vehicles that seize the proximity of ground to achieve a flight with low drag and high lift. However, this kind of crafts lacks of a sound theory of flight that can lead to robust control solutions that guarantees safe autonomous operation in all the cruising phases.In this paper we address the problem of controlling a WIG craft in different scenarios and using different control strategies in order to compare their performance. The tested scenarios include obstacle avoidance by fly over and recovering from a random disturbance in vehicle attitude. MPC (Model Predictive Control) is tested on the complete nonlinear model, while PID, used as baseline controller, LQR (Linear Quadratic Regulator) and adaptive LQR are tested on top of a partial feedback linearization. Results show that LQR has got the best overall performance, although it is seen that different design specifications could lead to the selection of one controller or another. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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13 pages, 5418 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Wind Tunnel Testing of Plasma Actuator with Two Mesh Electrodes to Boundary Layer Control at High Angle of Attack

by Ernest Gnapowski, Jarosław Pytka, Jerzy Józwik, Jan Laskowski and Joanna Michałowska

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020363 - 7 Jan 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2336

Abstract

The manuscript presents experimental research carried out on the wing model with the SD 7003 profile. A plasma actuator with DBD (Dielectric Barrier Discharge) discharges was placed on the wing surface to control boundary layer. The experimental tests were carried out in the [...] Read more.

The manuscript presents experimental research carried out on the wing model with the SD 7003 profile. A plasma actuator with DBD (Dielectric Barrier Discharge) discharges was placed on the wing surface to control boundary layer. The experimental tests were carried out in the AeroLab wind tunnel where the forces acting on the wing during the tests were measured. The conducted experimental research concerns the analysis of the phenomena that take place on the surface of the wing with the DBD plasma actuator turned off and on. The plasma actuator used during the experimental tests has a different structure compared to the classic plasma actuator. The commonly tested plasma actuator uses solid/impermeable electrodes, while in the research, the plasma actuator uses a new type of electrodes, two mesh electrodes separated by an impermeable Kapton dielectric. The experimental research was carried out for the angle of attack α = 15° and several air velocities V = 5–15 m/s with a step of 5 m/s for the Reynolds number Re = 87,500–262,500. The critical angle of attack at which the SD 7003 profile has the maximum lift coefficient is about 11°; during the experimental research, the angle was 15°. Despite the high angle of attack, it was possible to increase the lift coefficient. The use of a plasma actuator with two mesh electrodes allowed to increase the lift by 5%, even at a high angle of attack. During experimental research used high voltage power supply for powering the DBD plasma actuator in the voltage range from 7.5 to 15 kV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Aircraft)

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