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Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities
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Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities

A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Psychology of Sustainability and Sustainable Development".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2022) | Viewed by 38680

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Stefano Boca

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Psychology, Educational Sciences and Human Movement, University of Palermo, City Palermo I-90133, Italy
Interests: psychology of sport; physical activity
Dr. Ambra Gentile

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Psychology, Educational Sciences and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy
Interests: relationship between cognitive development and physical activity; moral disengagement in youth athletes; psychological wellbeing in children practicing sports; cognition and physical exercise across life span
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As you probably know well, the sport domain retains a considerable degree of disparity between males and females. This is true for both the sport organizations and the sport performance as well as for many of the activities that people carry on in their free time. Sport is considered mainly a masculine domain for its intrinsic characteristics (i.e., strength) and women who engage in some specific kind of sports may be perceived as “masculine”. The persistence of these stereotypes, reinforced by the mass-media representation of female athletes (e.g., masculine, sexualized), put other barriers for gender equality inside the sport field. Gender inequality is at the origin of under-performance of female athletes and barrier to job career for women working in sport organizations. Respecting gender difference in sport activities and sport organizations helps maintaining an inclusive environment. On the contrary, a lack of respect brings to social and psychological cost both for women and men. This special issue is devoted to investigating the questions raised by gender inequalities in the diverse areas of sport and leisure practice. In this way we may all together make stock of the current situation and contribute to raise the awareness of these phenomena. Your contribution will certainly improve the quality and the impact of this special issue of Sustainability.

Prof. Stefano Boca
Dr. Ambra Gentile
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sport and leisure time
  • gender pay gap
  • glass ceiling
  • glass cliff
  • gender stereotypes

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 263 KiB  
Article
Effects of Fitness Dance and Funny Running on Anxiety of Female Ph.D. Candidates
by Nannan Zhang, Fengxin Sun, Yongsheng Zhu, Qinglan Zheng, Changjun Jia, Yupeng Mao and Bing Liu
Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021118 - 6 Jan 2023
Viewed by 2443
Abstract
Anxiety has been widely prevalent among female Ph.D. candidates. There is a positive correlation between exercise and mental health promotion. Nevertheless, little is known about the use of fitness dance and funny running to intervene in the anxiety of female Ph.D. candidates. In [...] Read more.
Anxiety has been widely prevalent among female Ph.D. candidates. There is a positive correlation between exercise and mental health promotion. Nevertheless, little is known about the use of fitness dance and funny running to intervene in the anxiety of female Ph.D. candidates. In this paper, the effects of fitness dance and funny running on the anxiety of female Ph.D. candidates were evaluated by a repeated measurement experimental design. We randomly divided the participants into two groups, one group received a fitness dance exercise, and the other received a funny running exercise. The Spielberger State–Trait Anxiety Inventory was used to investigate the female Ph.D. candidates’ anxiety. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test the effects of a fitness dance group and a funny running group on participants’ anxiety, and to compare the differences between the two groups. Results showed that a 12-week fitness dance and funny running can alleviate participants’ anxiety from severe to moderate. Specifically, fitness dance increased the positive emotional experience of participants’ state anxiety (p = 0.018) and trait anxiety (p = 0.019) at 8-week, and decreased the negative emotional experience of state anxiety (p = 0.012), trait anxiety (p = 0.008), state anxiety level (p = 0.001) and trait anxiety level (p = 0.034) at 12-week. Funny running increased the positive emotional experience of participants’ state anxiety (p = 0.014), and trait anxiety (p = 0.002), and reduced the negative emotional experience of state anxiety (p = 0.043), state anxiety level (p = 0.047) and trait anxiety level (p = 0.022) at 12-week. This study suggests that fitness dance and funny running are healthy behaviors, which can help Chinese female Ph.D. candidates to dissociate from anxiety and stress situations and develop a healthy lifestyle. It is worth noting that the effects of fitness dance on Chinese female Ph.D. candidates’ anxiety are better than that of funny running. Based on the good effects of fitness dance in alleviating the anxiety of Chinese female Ph.D. candidates, future researches can design fitness dance intervention programs combining exercise therapy and psychotherapy according to the anxiety characteristics of female Ph.D. candidates, such as mindfulness fitness dance programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
13 pages, 684 KiB  
Article
Knowledge of the Legal Issues of Anti-Doping Regulations: Examining the Gender-Specific Validity of the Novel Measurement Tool Used for Professional Athletes
by Draginja Vuksanovic Stankovic, Antonela Sinkovic, Damir Sekulic, Mario Jelicic and Jelena Rodek
Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12883; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912883 - 9 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1818
Abstract
In the present study, we aim to assess the reliability and gender-specific validity of an original questionnaire (Q-LADR) in evaluating the knowledge of legal anti-doping regulations and to examine the gender-specific associations between Q-LADR and potential doping behavior (PDB) in senior-level professional athletes. [...] Read more.
In the present study, we aim to assess the reliability and gender-specific validity of an original questionnaire (Q-LADR) in evaluating the knowledge of legal anti-doping regulations and to examine the gender-specific associations between Q-LADR and potential doping behavior (PDB) in senior-level professional athletes. The participants were team-sport players from Croatia and Montenegro (n = 479, 179 females, 21.3 ± 3.3 years of age). Apart from Q-LADR, they were tested in sociodemographic, sport, and doping factors. The results show the proper test–retest reliability of the Q-LADR (Cohen’s kappa = 0.65; average percentage of the equally responded questions: 84%). Men achieved higher scores for the Q-LADR than women (t-test = 9.55, p < 0.001). The Q-LADR score was correlated with age in men, and with number of doping tests and sport success in men and women. Lower Q-LADR scores were correlated with neutral (in women) and positive doping attitudes (in men and women). The results confirm the importance of testing knowledge on the legal issues of anti-doping regulations for athletes, with the possible applicability of findings in the global fight against doping in sport. In order to provide equal opportunities for all to be involved in professional sport, special attention should be paid to vulnerable groups (i.e., women, younger athletes, and those who have not achieved sport success). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
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17 pages, 321 KiB  
Article
Do Women Perceive a Payoff from Working without Pay? A Gender Comparison of Perceived Career Outcomes of Sport Volunteering
by Katrin Scharfenkamp, Pamela Wicker, Tim F. Thormann and Larissa E. Davies
Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 11907; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141911907 - 21 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2204
Abstract
Gender equality among volunteers and in the labor market are essential for social sustainability. This study examines whether women value benefits of sport volunteering for their job market situation significantly differently than men. Based on signaling and social role theory, we hypothesize that [...] Read more.
Gender equality among volunteers and in the labor market are essential for social sustainability. This study examines whether women value benefits of sport volunteering for their job market situation significantly differently than men. Based on signaling and social role theory, we hypothesize that women are more likely to value sport volunteering as a job market signal and as useful for career options than men. According to human capital and ecological systems theory, we hypothesize that this link depends on women’s age and national gender equality. An online survey targeting volunteers in European football clubs (in seven countries; n = 16,989) was conducted. Logistic regressions are estimated to analyze the factors affecting respondents’ agreement that sport volunteering ‘looks good on their CV’ or ‘allows to explore new career options’. The findings show that women are significantly more likely to value sport volunteering as a job market signal but are significantly less likely to explore new career options than men. While older women are significantly less likely to agree, women living in more gender equal countries are more likely to agree. Our findings indicate a link between the male dominance in sport volunteering and the job market, which is determined by social sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
18 pages, 339 KiB  
Article
Critical Masses and Gender Diversity in Voluntary Sport Leadership: The Role of Economic and Social State-Level Factors
by Lara Lesch, Shannon Kerwin, Tim F. Thormann and Pamela Wicker
Sustainability 2022, 14(10), 6208; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106208 - 19 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2572
Abstract
Gender equality in leadership positions is important for sport organizations to achieve economic and social sustainability. Based on a multi-level framework, this study examines spillover effects from economic and social state-level factors in sport organizations’ environment on critical masses of women on their [...] Read more.
Gender equality in leadership positions is important for sport organizations to achieve economic and social sustainability. Based on a multi-level framework, this study examines spillover effects from economic and social state-level factors in sport organizations’ environment on critical masses of women on their boards (in terms of share and numbers) and board gender diversity (reflected by different types of boards). Data of national and regional sport governing bodies in Germany were collected (n = 930), with variables capturing organizational characteristics (e.g., board composition) and economic and social factors at the state level. The results of regression analyses show that women’s attainment in tertiary education increases the likelihood of a critical mass of at least 30% women on the board, and a higher divorce rate increases the likelihood of a critical mass of three women on the board. Sport organizations in states with a higher gender wage gap are more likely to have balanced boards, indicating that volunteering might be a substitute to paid work. The findings suggest that the presence of women in sport leadership is affected by economic and social conditions in the organizations’ geographical surroundings and that spillover effects occur from the state level to the organizational level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
11 pages, 273 KiB  
Article
The “Queen Bee Syndrome” in Sports Federations: An Exploratory Investigation of Gender Stereotypes in Italian Female Coaches
by Caterina Cibibin and Irene Leo
Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1596; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031596 - 29 Jan 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4292
Abstract
Several studies have shown that women in top positions tend to hinder and mistreat other women; this phenomenon is known in the literature under the term “Queen bee syndrome”. The aim of this study is to investigate whether Queen bee syndrome is also [...] Read more.
Several studies have shown that women in top positions tend to hinder and mistreat other women; this phenomenon is known in the literature under the term “Queen bee syndrome”. The aim of this study is to investigate whether Queen bee syndrome is also present within the Italian Sports Federations. To this end, an online questionnaire was administered to Italian female coaches (n = 516). From the statistical analyses, it emerged that coaches in the 40–49 age group attribute to themselves more masculine than feminine adjectives (Bem Sex-Role Inventory, BSRI), and also score higher on the gender stereotype scales, the Attitudes Towards Women Scale (d = −0.1189, p < 0.05) and the Macho Scale, compared to trainers in the 18–29 age group (d = −0.1681, p < 0.05). Moreover, a positive correlation emerges between the scores obtained on the Attitudes Towards Women Scale and Macho Scale (r = 0.600, p <0.01) and between organizational support and affective attachment to the organization (r = 0.529, p <0.01). Overall, all the results seem to show the presence of the Queen bee syndrome within the Italian Sports Federations. In the future, it will be interesting to evaluate additional variables involved in this phenomenon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
20 pages, 1518 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Time Use Surveys Using CO-STATIS: A Multiway Data Analysis of Gender Inequalities in Time Use in Colombia
by Edith Johana Medina-Hernández, María José Fernández-Gómez and Inmaculada Barrera-Mellado
Sustainability 2021, 13(23), 13073; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313073 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3137
Abstract
The aim of this article was to study 23 time use activities measured in the two latest Colombian National Time Use Surveys, taken in 2013 (with 119,899 participants over the age of 10) and in 2017 (with a sample of 122,620 participants), to [...] Read more.
The aim of this article was to study 23 time use activities measured in the two latest Colombian National Time Use Surveys, taken in 2013 (with 119,899 participants over the age of 10) and in 2017 (with a sample of 122,620 participants), to identify similarities and differences between the years of the survey by gender, age group, and socioeconomic level. The study’s results were obtained using the CO-STATIS multiway multivariate data analysis technique, which is comprised of two X-STATIS analyses and co-inertia analysis. The results confirm the existence of gender issues related to time use in Colombia, which are associated with gender stereotypes that link women to unpaid work and home care, especially in low socioeconomic levels, where women face limitations in terms of the time available to earn their own income. Additionally, differences were found by socioeconomic level, where Colombians of high socioeconomic status in all age groups are able to devote more time to leisure and recreational activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
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14 pages, 406 KiB  
Article
Influence of Gender Stereotypes, Type of Sport Watched and Close Environment on Adolescent Sport Practice According to Gender
by Adrián Mateo-Orcajada, Lucía Abenza-Cano, Raquel Vaquero-Cristóbal, Sonia María Martínez-Castro, Alejandro Leiva-Arcas, Ana María Gallardo-Guerrero and Antonio Sánchez-Pato
Sustainability 2021, 13(21), 11863; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111863 - 27 Oct 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6475
Abstract
The practice of sport by adolescents is influenced by multiple factors, which could create differences in sports participation according to gender. The objectives of this study were to determine which types of sports were most practiced by adolescent males and females; and to [...] Read more.
The practice of sport by adolescents is influenced by multiple factors, which could create differences in sports participation according to gender. The objectives of this study were to determine which types of sports were most practiced by adolescent males and females; and to analyze the relationship of gender stereotypes, the type of sport observed and the personal environment, to the type of sport practiced, depending on the adolescent’s gender. To this end, a total of 632 adolescents completed the questionnaire “Lifestyle in Sport with a Gender Perspective”. The results showed significant differences according to gender in the type of sport practiced (p < 0.05), in the membership to sports clubs (p < 0.001), and in the participation in competitions (p < 0.001). It was found that family (p < 0.005) and friends (p < 0.05) were the social agents that most influenced the choice of the type of sport practiced, and that the type of sport watched live (p < 0.005), and in the media (p < 0.001), was related to gender and the type of sport practiced. In contrast, the gender stereotypes of the adolescents themselves were not related to the practice of sports. In conclusion, the environment closest to the adolescents was related to the type of sport practiced by those adolescents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
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Review

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11 pages, 426 KiB  
Review
Barriers and Motives for Physical Activity and Sports Practice among Trans People: A Systematic Review
by Joana Oliveira, Roberta Frontini, Miguel Jacinto and Raúl Antunes
Sustainability 2022, 14(9), 5295; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095295 - 27 Apr 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6175
Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the research conducted between 2016 and 2021, regarding barriers and motives for the practice of physical activity (PA), physical exercise (PE), and sports among trans individuals. The searches were carried out in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of [...] Read more.
This study aimed to analyze the research conducted between 2016 and 2021, regarding barriers and motives for the practice of physical activity (PA), physical exercise (PE), and sports among trans individuals. The searches were carried out in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases between January 2022 and April 2022, and included papers published between October 2016 and December 2021. After reading the full text of the studies, and according to the eligibility criteria previously defined, only six studies met the inclusion criteria. Internal barriers were related to body dissatisfaction and discomfort, discrimination, and fear of other people’s reactions. Regarding external barriers, sports environment, PE environment, and sports participation policies and regulations are the main factors expressed by trans individuals that hinder the practice of sports and PE. The desire to achieve a specific physical form and the role that PE plays in the preparation and/or replacement of gender-confirming surgery are the most important motives for the practice. This study highlights the importance of continuing to fight the barriers encountered in the practice of PE and sports, suggesting the main motives that could help create better interventions, plans, and inclusive policies that may help promote its practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
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Other

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8 pages, 232 KiB  
Concept Paper
Competition, Gender Equality, and Doping in Sports in the Red Queen Effect Perspective
by Yalcin Uyar, Ambra Gentile, Hamza Uyar, Övünç Erdeveciler, Hakan Sunay, Veronica Mîndrescu, Dino Mujkic and Antonino Bianco
Sustainability 2022, 14(5), 2490; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052490 - 22 Feb 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5505
Abstract
The nature of sports is characterized by a strong competitive component that generates inequalities among athletes at different levels, specifically in relation to gender, technology, and doping. These inequalities can be represented according to the Red Queen effect perspective, which has been previously [...] Read more.
The nature of sports is characterized by a strong competitive component that generates inequalities among athletes at different levels, specifically in relation to gender, technology, and doping. These inequalities can be represented according to the Red Queen effect perspective, which has been previously hypothesized in other competitive environments (evolutionary biology and economics, for instance). The Red Queen effect considers each competitive environment to require a constant effort to maintain a position of competitive advantage in order reach the best result possible. Therefore, the aim of the current paper is to provide an innovative perspective for the understanding of competition in sports, identifying factors (i.e., physical appearance for gender equality, socioeconomic status of a sport team for technology, and antidoping rules for doping) influencing athletes’ possibilities to win a competition. Concerning gender differences, the disparity between genders reflects a lower coverage in sports news, and media are more likely to focus on female athletes’ physical appearance than their performance in sports. Therefore, women struggle more with increasing their visibility and in affirming their status as an athlete. On the other hand, the introduction of science and technological innovations in sports has generated economic interests in sport competitions, which reached superior performance levels compared to the past. Teams that cannot afford financial burdens of technological innovation risk being left out from sport competitions. Finally, doping creates a Red Queen environment since antidoping rules catch a small portion of athletes using performance enhancement drugs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gender Issues in Sport and Leisure Activities)
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