Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease

Editorial

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4 pages, 9547 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The One Health Approach—Why Is It So Important?

by John S Mackenzie and Martyn Jeggo

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(2), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4020088 - 31 May 2019

Cited by 426 | Viewed by 39803

Abstract

It has become increasingly clear over the past three decades that the majority of novel, emergent zoonotic infectious diseases originate in animals, especially wildlife [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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Research

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9 pages, 511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Respiratory Illness in a Piggery Associated with the First Identified Outbreak of Swine Influenza in Australia: Assessing the Risk to Human Health and Zoonotic Potential

by David W. Smith, Ian G. Barr, Richmond Loh, Avram Levy, Simone Tempone, Mark O’Dea, James Watson, Frank Y. K. Wong and Paul V. Effler

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4020096 - 25 Jun 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3633

Abstract

Australia was previously believed to be free of enzootic swine influenza viruses due strict quarantine practices and use of biosecure breeding facilities. The first proven Australian outbreak of swine influenza occurred in Western Australian in 2012, revealing an unrecognized zoonotic risk, and a [...] Read more.

Australia was previously believed to be free of enzootic swine influenza viruses due strict quarantine practices and use of biosecure breeding facilities. The first proven Australian outbreak of swine influenza occurred in Western Australian in 2012, revealing an unrecognized zoonotic risk, and a potential future pandemic threat. A public health investigation was undertaken to determine whether zoonotic infections had occurred and to reduce the risk of further transmission between humans and swine. A program of monitoring, testing, treatment, and vaccination was commenced, and a serosurvey of workers was also undertaken. No acute infections with the swine influenza viruses were detected. Serosurvey results were difficult to interpret due to previous influenza infections and past and current vaccinations. However, several workers had elevated haemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody levels to the swine influenza viruses that could not be attributed to vaccination or infection with contemporaneous seasonal influenza A viruses. However, we lacked a suitable control population, so this was inconclusive. The experience was valuable in developing better protocols for managing outbreaks at the human–animal interface. Strict adherence to biosecurity practices, and ongoing monitoring of swine and their human contacts is important to mitigate pandemic risk. Strain specific serological assays would greatly assist in identifying zoonotic transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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12 pages, 1318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Factors for Brucella Seroprevalence in Peri-Urban Dairy Farms in Five Indian Cities

by Johanna F. Lindahl, Jatinder Paul Singh Gill, Razibuddin Ahmed Hazarika, Nadeem Mohamed Fairoze, Jasbir S. Bedi, Ian Dohoo, Abhimanyu Singh Chauhan, Delia Grace and Manish Kakkar

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(2), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4020070 - 22 Apr 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4503

Abstract

Brucellosis is endemic among dairy animals in India, contributing to production losses and posing a health risk to people, especially farmers and others in close contact with dairy animals or their products. Growing urban populations demand increased milk supplies, resulting in intensifying dairy [...] Read more.

Brucellosis is endemic among dairy animals in India, contributing to production losses and posing a health risk to people, especially farmers and others in close contact with dairy animals or their products. Growing urban populations demand increased milk supplies, resulting in intensifying dairy production at the peri-urban fringe. Peri-urban dairying is under-studied but has implications for disease transmission, both positive and negative. In this cross-sectional study, five Indian cities were selected to represent different geographies and urbanization extent. Around each, we randomly selected 34 peri-urban villages, and in each village three smallholder dairy farms (defined as having a maximum of 10 dairy animals) were randomly selected. The farmers were interviewed, and milk samples were taken from up to three animals. These were tested using a commercial ELISA for antibodies against Brucella abortus, and factors associated with herd seroprevalence were identified. In all, 164 out of 1163 cows (14.1%, 95% CI 12.2–16.2%) were seropositive for Brucella. In total, 91 out of 510 farms (17.8%, 95% CI 14.6–21.4%) had at least one positive animal, and out of these, just seven farmers stated that they had vaccinated against brucellosis. In four cities, the farm-level seroprevalence ranged between 1.4–5.2%, while the fifth city had a seroprevalence of 72.5%. This city had larger, zero-grazing herds, used artificial insemination to a much higher degree, replaced their animals by purchasing from their neighbors, were less likely to contact a veterinarian in case of sick animals, and were also judged to be less clean. Within the high-prevalence city, farms were at higher risk of being infected if they had a young owner and if they were judged less clean. In the low-prevalence cities, no risk factors could be identified. In conclusion, this study has identified that a city can have a high burden of infected animals in the peri-urban areas, but that seroprevalence is strongly influenced by the husbandry system. Increased intensification can be associated with increased risk, and thus the practices associated with this, such as artificial insemination, are also associated with increased risk. These results may be important to identify high-risk areas for prioritizing interventions and for policy decisions influencing the structure and development of the dairy industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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12 pages, 1614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical and Epidemiological Patterns of Scrub Typhus, an Emerging Disease in Bhutan

by Kezang Dorji, Yoenten Phuentshok, Tandin Zangpo, Sithar Dorjee, Chencho Dorjee, Peter Jolly, Roger Morris, Nelly Marquetoux and Joanna McKenzie

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4020056 - 29 Mar 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4846

Abstract

Scrub typhus (ST) is a vector-borne rickettsial infection causing acute febrile illness. The re-emergence of ST in the Asia-Pacific region represents a serious public health threat. ST was first detected in Bhutan in 2008. However, the disease is likely to be under-diagnosed and [...] Read more.

Scrub typhus (ST) is a vector-borne rickettsial infection causing acute febrile illness. The re-emergence of ST in the Asia-Pacific region represents a serious public health threat. ST was first detected in Bhutan in 2008. However, the disease is likely to be under-diagnosed and under-reported, and the true impact is difficult to estimate. At the end of 2014, the SD Bioline Tsutsugamushi Test^TM rapid diagnostic test (RDT) kits became available in all hospitals to assist clinicians in diagnosing ST. We conducted a retrospective descriptive study, reviewing records from all hospitals of Bhutan to identify all RDT-positive clinical cases of ST in Bhutan in 2015. The aim was to evaluate the burden of ST in Bhutan, describe the demographic, spatial and temporal patterns of disease, and identify the typical clinical presentations. The annual incidence of RDT-positive cases of ST reporting to Bhutanese hospitals in 2015 was estimated to be 62 per 100,000 population at risk. The incidence of disease was highest in the southern districts with a subtropical climate and a high level of agricultural production. The highest proportion of cases (87%) was rural residents, with farmers being the main occupational category. The disease was strongly seasonal, with 97% of cases occurring between June and November, coinciding with the monsoon and agricultural production seasons. Common ST symptoms were not specific, and an eschar was noted by clinicians in only 7.4% of cases, which is likely to contribute to an under-diagnosis of ST. ST represents an important and neglected burden, especially in rural communities in Bhutan. The outcomes of this study will inform public health measures such as timely-awareness programmes for clinicians and the public in high-risk areas, to improve the diagnosis, treatment and clinical outcomes of this disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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9 pages, 1195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into Australian Bat Lyssavirus in Insectivorous Bats of Western Australia

by Diana Prada, Victoria Boyd, Michelle Baker, Bethany Jackson and Mark O’Dea

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010046 - 11 Mar 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5229

Abstract

Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a known causative agent of neurological disease in bats, humans and horses. It has been isolated from four species of pteropid bats and a single microbat species (Saccolaimus flaviventris). To date, ABLV surveillance has primarily been [...] Read more.

Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a known causative agent of neurological disease in bats, humans and horses. It has been isolated from four species of pteropid bats and a single microbat species (Saccolaimus flaviventris). To date, ABLV surveillance has primarily been passive, with active surveillance concentrating on eastern and northern Australian bat populations. As a result, there is scant regional ABLV information for large areas of the country. To better inform the local public health risks associated with human-bat interactions, this study describes the lyssavirus prevalence in microbat communities in the South West Botanical Province of Western Australia. We used targeted real-time PCR assays to detect viral RNA shedding in 839 oral swabs representing 12 species of microbats, which were sampled over two consecutive summers spanning 2016–2018. Additionally, we tested 649 serum samples via Luminex^® assay for reactivity to lyssavirus antigens. Active lyssavirus infection was not detected in any of the samples. Lyssavirus antibodies were detected in 19 individuals across six species, with a crude prevalence of 2.9% (95% CI: 1.8–4.5%) over the two years. In addition, we present the first records of lyssavirus exposure in two Nyctophilus species, and Falsistrellus mackenziei. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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Review

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15 pages, 247 KiB

Open AccessReview

Policy and Science for Global Health Security: Shaping the Course of International Health

by Kavita M. Berger, James L. N. Wood, Bonnie Jenkins, Jennifer Olsen, Stephen S. Morse, Louise Gresham, J. Jeffrey Root, Margaret Rush, David Pigott, Taylor Winkleman, Melinda Moore, Thomas R. Gillespie, Jennifer B. Nuzzo, Barbara A. Han, Patricia Olinger, William B. Karesh, James N. Mills, Joseph F. Annelli, Jamie Barnabei, Daniel Lucey and David T. S. Hayman Show full author list Hide full author list

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4020060 - 10 Apr 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8144

Abstract

The global burden of infectious diseases and the increased attention to natural, accidental, and deliberate biological threats has resulted in significant investment in infectious disease research. Translating the results of these studies to inform prevention, detection, and response efforts often can be challenging, [...] Read more.

The global burden of infectious diseases and the increased attention to natural, accidental, and deliberate biological threats has resulted in significant investment in infectious disease research. Translating the results of these studies to inform prevention, detection, and response efforts often can be challenging, especially if prior relationships and communications have not been established with decision-makers. Whatever scientific information is shared with decision-makers before, during, and after public health emergencies is highly dependent on the individuals or organizations who are communicating with policy-makers. This article briefly describes the landscape of stakeholders involved in information-sharing before and during emergencies. We identify critical gaps in translation of scientific expertise and results, and biosafety and biosecurity measures to public health policy and practice with a focus on One Health and zoonotic diseases. Finally, we conclude by exploring ways of improving communication and funding, both of which help to address the identified gaps. By leveraging existing scientific information (from both the natural and social sciences) in the public health decision-making process, large-scale outbreaks may be averted even in low-income countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

11 pages, 651 KiB

Open AccessReview

Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Australia: From Known Known to Known Unknown

by Andrew F. van den Hurk, Alyssa T. Pyke, John S. Mackenzie, Sonja Hall-Mendelin and Scott A. Ritchie

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010038 - 20 Feb 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8223

Abstract

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a major cause of neurological disease in Asia. It is a zoonotic flavivirus transmitted between water birds and/or pigs by Culex mosquitoes; humans are dead-end hosts. In 1995, JEV emerged for the first time in northern Australia causing [...] Read more.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a major cause of neurological disease in Asia. It is a zoonotic flavivirus transmitted between water birds and/or pigs by Culex mosquitoes; humans are dead-end hosts. In 1995, JEV emerged for the first time in northern Australia causing an unprecedented outbreak in the Torres Strait. In this article, we revisit the history of JEV in Australia and describe investigations of JEV transmission cycles in the Australian context. Public health responses to the incipient outbreak included vaccination and sentinel pig surveillance programs. Virus isolation and vector competence experiments incriminated Culex annulirostris as the likely regional vector. The role this species plays in transmission cycles depends on the availability of domestic pigs as a blood source. Experimental evidence suggests that native animals are relatively poor amplifying hosts of JEV. The persistence and predominantly annual virus activity between 1995 and 2005 suggested that JEV had become endemic in the Torres Strait. However, active surveillance was discontinued at the end of 2005, so the status of JEV in northern Australia is unknown. Novel mosquito-based surveillance systems provide a means to investigate whether JEV still occurs in the Torres Strait or is no longer a risk to Australia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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21 pages, 911 KiB

Open AccessReview

One Health—Its Importance in Helping to Better Control Antimicrobial Resistance

by Peter J. Collignon and Scott A. McEwen

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010022 - 29 Jan 2019

Cited by 241 | Viewed by 17997

Abstract

Approaching any issue from a One Health perspective necessitates looking at the interactions of people, domestic animals, wildlife, plants, and our environment. For antimicrobial resistance this includes antimicrobial use (and abuse) in the human, animal and environmental sectors. More importantly, the spread of [...] Read more.

Approaching any issue from a One Health perspective necessitates looking at the interactions of people, domestic animals, wildlife, plants, and our environment. For antimicrobial resistance this includes antimicrobial use (and abuse) in the human, animal and environmental sectors. More importantly, the spread of resistant bacteria and resistance determinants within and between these sectors and globally must be addressed. Better managing this problem includes taking steps to preserve the continued effectiveness of existing antimicrobials such as trying to eliminate their inappropriate use, particularly where they are used in high volumes. Examples are the mass medication of animals with critically important antimicrobials for humans, such as third generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones, and the long term, in-feed use of antimicrobials, such colistin, tetracyclines and macrolides, for growth promotion. In people it is essential to better prevent infections, reduce over-prescribing and over-use of antimicrobials and stop resistant bacteria from spreading by improving hygiene and infection control, drinking water and sanitation. Pollution from inadequate treatment of industrial, residential and farm waste is expanding the resistome in the environment. Numerous countries and several international agencies have now included a One Health Approach within their action plans to address antimicrobial resistance. Necessary actions include improvements in antimicrobial use, better regulation and policy, as well as improved surveillance, stewardship, infection control, sanitation, animal husbandry, and finding alternatives to antimicrobials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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12 pages, 231 KiB

Open AccessReview

Clostridium difficile in Asia: Opportunities for One Health Management

by Deirdre A. Collins and Thomas V. Riley

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010007 - 28 Dec 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5019

Abstract

Clostridium difficile is a ubiquitous spore-forming bacterium which causes toxin-mediated diarrhoea and colitis in people whose gut microflora has been depleted by antimicrobial use, so it is a predominantly healthcare-associated disease. However, there are many One Health implications to C. difficile, given [...] Read more.

Clostridium difficile is a ubiquitous spore-forming bacterium which causes toxin-mediated diarrhoea and colitis in people whose gut microflora has been depleted by antimicrobial use, so it is a predominantly healthcare-associated disease. However, there are many One Health implications to C. difficile, given high colonisation rates in food production animals, contamination of outdoor environments by use of contaminated animal manure, increasing incidence of community-associated C. difficile infection (CDI), and demonstration of clonal groups of C. difficile shared between human clinical cases and food animals. In Asia, the epidemiology of CDI is not well understood given poor testing practices in many countries. The growing middle-class populations of Asia are presenting increasing demands for meat, thus production farming, particularly of pigs, chicken and cattle, is rapidly expanding in Asian countries. Few reports on C. difficile colonisation among production animals in Asia exist, but those that do show high prevalence rates, and possible importation of European strains of C. difficile like ribotype 078. This review summarises our current understanding of the One Health aspects of the epidemiology of CDI in Asia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

Other

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12 pages, 215 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) in the Food Chain: Trade, One Health and Codex

by Anna George

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010054 - 26 Mar 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6511

Abstract

Strategies that take on a One Health approach to addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) focused on reducing human use of antimicrobials, but policy-makers now have to grapple with a different set of political, economic, and highly sensitive trade interests less amenable to government direction, [...] Read more.

Strategies that take on a One Health approach to addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) focused on reducing human use of antimicrobials, but policy-makers now have to grapple with a different set of political, economic, and highly sensitive trade interests less amenable to government direction, to tackle AMR in the food chain. Understanding the importance and influence of the intergovernmental Codex negotiations underway on AMR in the Food Chain is very weak but essential for AMR public policy experts. National and global food producing industries are already under pressure as consumers learn about the use of antimicrobials in food production and more so when the full impact of AMR microorganisms in the food chain and on the human microbiome is better understood. Governments will be expected to respond. Trade-related negotiations on access and use made of antimicrobials is political: the relevance of AMR ‘evidence’ is already contested and not all food producers or users of antimicrobials in the food chain are prepared to, or capable of, moving at the same pace. In trade negotiations governments defend their interpretation of national interest. Given AMR in the global food chain threatens national interest, both AMR One Health and zoonotic disease experts should understand and participate in all trade-related AMR negotiations to protect One Health priorities. To help facilitate this an overview and analysis of Codex negotiations is provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

7 pages, 215 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

The Importance of Wildlife Disease Monitoring as Part of Global Surveillance for Zoonotic Diseases: The Role of Australia

by Rupert Woods, Andrea Reiss, Keren Cox-Witton, Tiggy Grillo and Andrew Peters

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010029 - 6 Feb 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7171

Abstract

Australia has a comprehensive system of capabilities and functions to prepare, detect and respond to health security threats. Strong cooperative links and coordination mechanisms exist between the human (public health) and animal arms of the health system in Australia. Wildlife is included in [...] Read more.

Australia has a comprehensive system of capabilities and functions to prepare, detect and respond to health security threats. Strong cooperative links and coordination mechanisms exist between the human (public health) and animal arms of the health system in Australia. Wildlife is included in this system. Recent reviews of both the animal and human health sectors have highlighted Australia’s relative strengths in the detection and management of emerging zoonotic diseases. However, the risks to Australia posed by diseases with wildlife as part of their epidemiology will almost certainly become greater with changing land use and climate change and as societal attitudes bring wildlife, livestock and people into closer contact. These risks are not isolated to Australia but are global. A greater emphasis on wildlife disease surveillance to assist in the detection of emerging infectious diseases and integration of wildlife health into One Health policy will be critical in better preparing Australia and other countries in their efforts to recognize and manage the adverse impacts of zoonotic diseases on human health. Animal and human health practitioners are encouraged to consider wildlife in their day to day activities and to learn more about Australia’s system and how they can become more involved by visiting www.wildlifeheathaustralia.com.au. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

4 pages, 475 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

A Short Report on the Lack of a Pyrogenic Response of Australian Genomic Group IV Isolates of Coxiella burnetii in Guinea Pigs

by Aminul Islam, John Stenos, Gemma Vincent and Stephen Graves

Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010018 - 25 Jan 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3005

Abstract

This small study reports on a non-pyrogenic response of five different Australian isolates of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii). They were all members of Genomic Group IV and obtained from three cases of acute human infection, one case of chronic human infection [...] Read more.

This small study reports on a non-pyrogenic response of five different Australian isolates of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii). They were all members of Genomic Group IV and obtained from three cases of acute human infection, one case of chronic human infection and one case of goat abortion. The guinea pigs infected with these isolates did not develop fever (temperature ≥ 40.0 °C), which is consistent with other members of this genomic group that were isolated from elsewhere in the world. In contrast, guinea pigs infected with the classical USA tick isolate, Nine Mile phase 1 (RSA 493) of Genomic Group I, experienced a four-day febrile period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Zoonoses)

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