Water

2024

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19 pages, 4588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

What Is Relatively Permanent? Flow Regimes of Arizona Streams within the Context of the 2023 Conforming Rule on the Revised Definition of “Waters of the United States”

by Jason P. Julian, Courtney Stuhldreher and Madeline T. Wade

Water 2024, 16(18), 2641; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182641 - 17 Sep 2024

Viewed by 701

Abstract

The classification of stream flow regimes has been a subject of study for over a half century in the fields of hydrology, geomorphology, ecology, and water resources management. But with the most recent Supreme Court decision on jurisdictional Waters of the United States [...] Read more.

The classification of stream flow regimes has been a subject of study for over a half century in the fields of hydrology, geomorphology, ecology, and water resources management. But with the most recent Supreme Court decision on jurisdictional Waters of the United States (WOTUS) and the 2023 Conforming Rule, the answer to the question of which waters are relatively permanent has increased in importance and urgency. One state where this question is salient is Arizona, where approximately 95% of its streams are nonperennial. In this study, we use long-term (>30 years) daily discharge records from Arizona to assess semi-natural flow regimes of arid streams within the context of the 2023 Conforming Rule. Using flow percentile distributions, we distinguished flow permanency—ephemeral vs. intermittent vs. perennial—for 70 stream reaches distributed throughout the state. Ephemeral streams had a median flow of 0 cms and a 75th percentile flow permanence less than 25% (i.e., less than 3 months of flow for every 7.5 out of 10 years). On the other end of the spectrum, perennial streams had a 90th percentile flow permanence of 100%. In the middle, intermittent streams had a 75th percentile flow permanence greater than 25% and a 90th percentile flow permanence less than 100%. We also assessed the effect of the recent megadrought (since 1994) on flow permanency. As a result of the megadrought, four perennial streams transitioned to intermittent, four intermittent streams transitioned to ephemeral, and one perennial stream became ephemeral. The flow classification we present here is specific to Arizona streams but could be useful to other arid regions seeking to answer the question of which streams are relatively permanent in a typical year. Full article

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2022

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17 pages, 2419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Collaborative Framework for Hydropower Development and Sustainable Livelihood of Farmers in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin: A Review with the Perspective of Energy-Water-Food Nexus

by Shuai Zhong, Yidong Zhu, Jianan Zhao and Lei Shen

Water 2022, 14(3), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14030499 - 7 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3707

Abstract

With the process of poverty eradication and economic growth, hydropower development becomes increasingly important because of its huge potential advantages in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin. However, the complex topography and rich resource endowments in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin bring a variety of potential [...] Read more.

With the process of poverty eradication and economic growth, hydropower development becomes increasingly important because of its huge potential advantages in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin. However, the complex topography and rich resource endowments in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin bring a variety of potential risks and uncertainties in hydropower development, which has an important impact on the sustainable livelihood of farmers. There is an urgent need for countries in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin to systematically assess hydropower projects, especially their impact on the sustainable livelihoods of farmers. Based on the systematic analysis of relevant literature, this study established a collaborative framework of hydropower development and farmers’ sustainable livelihood, including theoretical framework, indicator system and model structure. The purpose is to explore the interaction mechanism of energy and water resources utilization, food security and sustainable livelihood of farmers in hydropower development. The findings can provide scientific and technological support for the Belt and Road Initiative, poverty reduction and sustainable development in the river basin. Full article

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2021

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22 pages, 6922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Multi-Sectoral Water Resources Allocation Based on Economic Evaluation Considering the Environmental Flow Requirements: A Case Study of Yellow River Basin

by Cheng-Yao Zhang and Taikan Oki

Water 2021, 13(16), 2253; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162253 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3736

Abstract

Competitions and disputes between various human water sectors and environmental flow of the river are exacerbated due to the rapid growth of the economy in Yellow River basin as well as the limited supply of available water resources in recent decades. It is [...] Read more.

Competitions and disputes between various human water sectors and environmental flow of the river are exacerbated due to the rapid growth of the economy in Yellow River basin as well as the limited supply of available water resources in recent decades. It is necessary to implement rational and effective management and allocation to alleviate the pressure of water shortage. In order to promote economic development and maintain the ecological balance of the river, both the water allocation to the river environmental system and different human needs should be of concern when making the allocation polices. This study developed a water allocation model based on Nash–Harsanyi bargaining game theory for optimal water resources allocation among agricultural, industrial, domestic, public, and urban ecological water (watering for urban green space) sectors while ensuring the environmental flow requirements of lower reaches. A comprehensive economic evaluation framework is built to assess the economic benefits of different water uses that were taken as the basis of water allocation model. The annual environmental base flow is 7.50 billion m³ in the lower reaches of Yellow River. Moreover, the optimal annual allocations for agricultural, industrial, domestic, public, and urban ecological water use sectors are estimated as 33.7, 6.42, 3.96, 1.75 and 2.68 billion m³, respectively. Full article

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2020

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21 pages, 1897 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Models of Subsidies for Water and Sanitation Services for Vulnerable People in South American Countries: Lessons for Brazil

by Daniel Antonio Narzetti and Rui Cunha Marques

Water 2020, 12(7), 1976; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12071976 - 13 Jul 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5817

Abstract

Access to water and sanitation services (WSS) in developing countries is constrained by the conditions of social inequality and the services affordability for the poorest households. Therefore, public policies related to WSS need to broaden in scope given the challenge of reaching all [...] Read more.

Access to water and sanitation services (WSS) in developing countries is constrained by the conditions of social inequality and the services affordability for the poorest households. Therefore, public policies related to WSS need to broaden in scope given the challenge of reaching all customers, especially the most vulnerable, in order to achieve a balance between the social and financial objectives of WSS. This paper will contribute to the understanding of the main access and subsidy policies in South American countries focusing on the Brazilian case study. The different experiences in this region have provided some interesting lessons about these issues for Brazil; the conclusion is that the current indirect and cross-subsidy policies are important, but the needed practices for expanding pro-poor access require direct demand-side subsidies. A more proactive intervention through public authorities is also needed. A new subsidization model for Brazil is highlighted and discussed. Full article

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18 pages, 3272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Agricultural Interval Two-Stage Fuzzy Differential Water Price Model (ITS-DWPM) for Initial Water Rights Allocation in Hulin, China

by Shuo Yan, Liquan Wang and Tienan Li

Water 2020, 12(1), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010221 - 13 Jan 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3131

Abstract

In recent years, China’s agricultural water consumption has been high, while water inefficiency has restricted the development of the economy. In this study, we developed an agricultural interval two-stage fuzzy differential water prices model (ITS-DWPM) by incorporating the techniques of two-stage programming (TP) [...] Read more.

In recent years, China’s agricultural water consumption has been high, while water inefficiency has restricted the development of the economy. In this study, we developed an agricultural interval two-stage fuzzy differential water prices model (ITS-DWPM) by incorporating the techniques of two-stage programming (TP) and interval-parameter programming (IPP) based on the differential water price. The ITS-DWPM can link the associated economic penalty attributed to the violation of the preregulated water target and the total system benefit under limited data availabilities (expressed stochastic and interval values); meanwhile, inaccurate water quantity data and dynamic economic data would be resolved. The methodology tended to resolve the complexity of initial water rights allocation problems, incorporating the relevant sectors as well as the agricultural irrigation system construction involved in water management decision. Furthermore, the model takes into account the restrictions on water quantity and price. In addition, multiple decision results were calculated under different states of water shortage. The developed method is applied to initial water rights allocation and agricultural irrigation system construction. The results generated can assist decision makers not only in formulating water rights allocation strategies, but also in balancing the contradiction between economic objectives and water resources control indicators. In 2020, the irrigation water utilization coefficient of each agricultural irrigation area in Hulin City should reach 0.55. Hutou needs to increase its agricultural irrigation channels by at least 4.49%, Shitouhe by at least 4.03%, and Daxinancha by at least 4.49%. Full article

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2019

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29 pages, 2184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Governance in India: Evidence on Water Law, Policy, and Administration from Eight Indian States

by Masood Ahmed and Eduardo Araral

Water 2019, 11(10), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102071 - 4 Oct 2019

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 16833

Abstract

Water governance is a widely acknowledged as an important factor for sustainable development. This study attempts to assess if the water governance in eight Indian states has improved after the announcement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We utilize the Institutional [...] Read more.

Water governance is a widely acknowledged as an important factor for sustainable development. This study attempts to assess if the water governance in eight Indian states has improved after the announcement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We utilize the Institutional Decomposition and Analysis (IDA) framework developed by Saleth and Dinar. Using survey data from two periods and 152 respondents, we calculate the scores on 17 indicators of water law, policy, and administration. We found that average scores on water law, policy, and administration have increased between the first and the second survey. We attributed this improvement to the fact that the Indian government is paying special attention to the provision of clean drinking water after the announcement of the SDGs. We also calculated nominal and weighted water governance indices (WGIs) for eight Indian states. This study made an important contribution to the existing water governance literature by capturing improvements in the water governance scores of eight Indian states after the announcement of the SDGs. Full article

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17 pages, 607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hotel Water Demand: The Impact of Changing from Linear to Increasing Block Rates

by Bartolomé Deyà-Tortella, Celso Garcia, William Nilsson and Dolores Tirado

Water 2019, 11(8), 1604; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11081604 - 2 Aug 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5410

Abstract

Water is a key aspect for any tourist destination. The pressure of tourism on water resources, and specifically by the hotel sector on islands and coastal areas, threatens the sustainability of the resource and, ultimately, of the destination. Several international organizations propose price [...] Read more.

Water is a key aspect for any tourist destination. The pressure of tourism on water resources, and specifically by the hotel sector on islands and coastal areas, threatens the sustainability of the resource and, ultimately, of the destination. Several international organizations propose price policy as an instrument to promote efficiency and penalize excessive water consumption. This study analyzes the short-term effectiveness of a water tariff reform, implemented by the regional government of the Balearic Islands in 2013, on hotel water consumption. The change consists in moving from a linear to an increasing block rate system. The study applies quantile regression with within-artificial blocks transformation on panel data for the period 2011–2015. The results conclude that the reform was not effective as a means to reduce the levels of water consumption. The disproportionate fixed component of the water tariff and the oversized initial block of the sanitation fee can explain the ineffectiveness of the reform. Full article

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34 pages, 7697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Demand for Stream Mitigation in Colorado, USA

by Jason P. Julian and Russell C. Weaver

Water 2019, 11(1), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11010174 - 19 Jan 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8308

Abstract

Colorado, the headwaters for much of the United States, is one of the fastest growing states in terms of both population and land development. These land use changes are impacting jurisdictional streams, and thus require compensatory stream mitigation via environmental restoration. In this [...] Read more.

Colorado, the headwaters for much of the United States, is one of the fastest growing states in terms of both population and land development. These land use changes are impacting jurisdictional streams, and thus require compensatory stream mitigation via environmental restoration. In this article, we first characterize current demand and supply for stream mitigation for the entire state of Colorado. Second, we assess future demand by forecasting and mapping the lengths of streams that will likely be impacted by specific development and land use changes. Third, based on our interviews with experts, stakeholders, resource managers, and regulators, we provide insight on how regulatory climate, challenges, and water resource developments may influence demand for stream mitigation. From geospatial analyses of permit data, we found that there is currently demand for compensatory stream mitigation in 13 of the 89 HUC-8 watersheds across Colorado. Permanent riverine impacts from 2012–2017 requiring compensatory mitigation totaled 38,292 linear feet (LF). The supply of stream mitigation credits falls well short of this demand. There has only been one approved stream mitigation bank in Colorado, supplying only 2539 LF credits. Based on our analyses of future growth and development in Colorado, there will be relatively high demand for stream mitigation credits in the next 5–10 years. While most of these impacts will be around the Denver metropolitan area, we identified some new areas of the state that will experience high demand for stream mitigation. Given regulatory agencies’ stated preference for mitigation banks, the high demand for stream mitigation credits, and the short supply of stream credits, there should be an active market for stream mitigation banks in Colorado. However, there are some key obstacles preventing this market from moving forward, with permanent water rights’ acquisitions at the top of the list. Ensuring stream mitigation compliance is essential for restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of stream systems in Colorado and beyond. Full article

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20 pages, 1958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interpreting Farmers’ Perceptions of Risks and Benefits Concerning Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation: A Case Study in Emilia-Romagna (Italy)

by Melania Michetti, Meri Raggi, Elisa Guerra and Davide Viaggi

Water 2019, 11(1), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11010108 - 9 Jan 2019

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6305

Abstract

Water recycling is becoming progressively more important as the need for Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) is increasing to ensure a transition towards a more sustainable use for water. Perceptions and public acceptance of water reuse are recognised as paramount factors for the [...] Read more.

Water recycling is becoming progressively more important as the need for Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) is increasing to ensure a transition towards a more sustainable use for water. Perceptions and public acceptance of water reuse are recognised as paramount factors for the successful introduction of wastewater reuse projects, regardless of the strength of scientific evidence in their favour. This article analyses perceptions of risks and benefits of using treated wastewater for irrigation purposes in agriculture when dealing with different crops. Data from an original farmer survey are analysed through descriptive statistics and a classification tree approach. The study reveals limited knowledge of wastewater treatment, yet a good level of openness towards the reuse of wastewater for irrigation. A lower risk perception and a higher acceptance level are mainly explained by positive expectations with regard to the environmental characteristics of effluent water, higher education, and specific cropping choices. Enhancing information availability is also found to positively affect social acceptance. The ease of converting current water-management practices to the new water source explains the perceived benefits of reusing water. Full article

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2018

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19 pages, 3215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Multicriteria Analysis Tool for Evaluating Water Resource Management Strategies

by Angelos Alamanos, Nikitas Mylopoulos, Athanasios Loukas and Dimitrios Gaitanaros

Water 2018, 10(12), 1795; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121795 - 7 Dec 2018

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5984

Abstract

Water is involved, directly or indirectly, with many activities and needs that have to be met. The large scale and importance of water projects, the investments needed, the difficulty in predicting the results, and the irreversible character of the decisions have made decision [...] Read more.

Water is involved, directly or indirectly, with many activities and needs that have to be met. The large scale and importance of water projects, the investments needed, the difficulty in predicting the results, and the irreversible character of the decisions have made decision making a complex scientific process. This paper presents a multicriteria analysis (MCA) tool for evaluating water resource management (WRM) strategies and selecting the most appropriate among them, using as an example a Greek area based on agricultural economy, which faces water scarcity problems. Seven alternative strategies were evaluated under hydrological and economic criteria. Four techniques were used—multi attribute utility theory (MAUT), analytic hierarchy process (AHP), elimination and choice expressing reality (ELECTRE), and technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS)—based on the main MCA techniques (utility theory, analytical hierarchy, outranking theory, and classification theory, respectively), to compare their performance, and to reach the most appropriate and ‘fitting’ method for the examined problem. The weightings extracted from two samples, (i) a sample of decision makers/stakeholders and (ii) a group of WRM experts, were used to compare the results. The process was carried out for each questionnaire, and thus the model shows the uncertainty of each sample group and of each method, as well as the overall uncertainty. The results illustrate the reality of the WRM problems of the watershed, enlighten their roots, and have further strengthened our conviction that the cooperation between the scientific community and the authorities is vital for more sustainable and efficient WRM. Full article

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21 pages, 3737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Industrial Water Pollution Discharge Taxes in China: A Multi-Sector Dynamic Analysis

by Xiaolin Guo, Mun Sing Ho, Liangzhi You, Jing Cao, Yu Fang, Taotao Tu and Yang Hong

Water 2018, 10(12), 1742; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121742 - 27 Nov 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 9266

Abstract

We explore how water pollution policy reforms in China could reduce industrial wastewater pollution with minimum adverse impact on GDP growth. We use a multi-sector dynamic Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, jointly developed by Harvard University and Tsinghua University, to examine the long-term [...] Read more.

We explore how water pollution policy reforms in China could reduce industrial wastewater pollution with minimum adverse impact on GDP growth. We use a multi-sector dynamic Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, jointly developed by Harvard University and Tsinghua University, to examine the long-term impact of pollution taxes. A firm-level dataset of wastewater and COD discharge is compiled and aggregated to provide COD-intensities for 22 industrial sectors. We simulated the impact of 4 different sets of Pigovian taxes on the output of these industrial sectors, where the tax rate depends on the COD-output intensity. In the baseline low rate of COD tax, COD discharge is projected to rise from 36 million tons in 2018 to 48 million in 2030, while GDP grows at 6.9% per year. We find that raising the COD tax by 8 times will lower COD discharge by 1.6% by 2030, while a high 20-times tax will cut it by 4.0%. The most COD-intensive sectors—textile goods, apparel, and food products—have the biggest reduction in output and emissions. The additional tax revenue is recycled by cutting existing taxes, including taxes on profits, leading to higher investment. This shift from consumption to investment leads to a slightly higher GDP over time. Full article

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19 pages, 1125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Water Management in Iraq (Kurdistan) as a Challenge for Governmental Responsibility

by Mahmood A. Yousuf, Nada Rapantova and Jalal H. Younis

Water 2018, 10(11), 1651; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111651 - 14 Nov 2018

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 16313

Abstract

During the last few decades, a critical scarcity of water has occurred in the Middle East due to climate change and the mismanagement of water resources. The situation is complicated by the absence of an effective legislative framework at the local level as [...] Read more.

During the last few decades, a critical scarcity of water has occurred in the Middle East due to climate change and the mismanagement of water resources. The situation is complicated by the absence of an effective legislative framework at the local level as well as by the incapability and disrepute of the local water authorities. Most Iraqi citizens depend on the surface waters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which have their sources in upstream neighbouring countries. Water crises concerning the shared waters urgently require a solution at the international level. Unfortunately, Iraq has faced several wars in a row (1980–2003), which has prevented the country from establishing its institutions. The rapid increase in the population of the transboundary countries on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and the high demands on agriculture, are accelerating water exploitation. In this paper, the present state of water management in Iraq from the viewpoint of the legislative framework, water balance, and transboundary issues will be discussed, with special attention to Kurdistan. Many legislative documents have been established or amended by the Iraqi and Kurdistan parliaments since 2003. In 2015, the Kurdistan Government Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, in cooperation with the EU, issued a guide for environmental legislation related to all environmental components such as air, water, and soil. The recommendations on actions needed in the water management in Kurdistan will be presented; they are inspired by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC) implemented in EU member states. Full article

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16 pages, 2708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transaction Costs, Modes, and Scales from Agricultural to Industrial Water Rights Trading in an Inland River Basin, Northwest China

by Xiaohong Deng, Xiaoyu Song and Zhongmin Xu

Water 2018, 10(11), 1598; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111598 - 7 Nov 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4143

Abstract

Water transactions from agriculture to industry have become an important means to address water scarcity and improve water economic efficiency. Transaction costs (TCs) are one of the main factors preventing water markets from forming or efficiently operating. To evaluate the level of transactions [...] Read more.

Water transactions from agriculture to industry have become an important means to address water scarcity and improve water economic efficiency. Transaction costs (TCs) are one of the main factors preventing water markets from forming or efficiently operating. To evaluate the level of transactions costs, we set the appropriate transaction modes for cross-sector lever water trading and evaluated the TCs from agriculture to industry in the Heihe River Basin (HRB), an inland basin in northwest China. We found that the ranges of transaction costs per m³ of water ranged from 0.06 to 1.10 yuan, and the ratios of TCs to transaction prices ranged from 4.11% to 244.44%. The transaction scale should be more than 15,267 m³ or 29,888 m³ when the TC is at the lower or upper limit in the study area. When the transaction scales are set correctly, the range of the transaction costs will be in an acceptable range, and the proportion of TCs to transaction price will not exceed the 8% limit of the California Water Bank, which was employed as a comparison. The key restrictive factor of water trading in HRB may be the low transaction scale, followed by the high water TCs. The effects of improving water use efficiency in cross-sector trading could not neutralize the restrictions caused by the negative effects of small water demand transaction scales for undeveloped secondary industries in HRB. However, considering the industrial structure and development trends of the regional economy, the future driving force of water transactions across sectors likely lies in tertiary industries in HRB. Full article

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10 pages, 465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the Concept of the Dualist Division of Lakes in Polish Law on Shaping Lake Water Policy from the Hydrological Perspective

by Włodzimierz Marszelewski and Michał Marszelewski

Water 2018, 10(11), 1495; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111495 - 23 Oct 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3277

Abstract

Pursuant to the Polish Water Law Act of 2017, lakes are divided into those with flowing and stagnant waters. Such a division, originating from the socialist law, is questioned in the scope of numerous disciplines. One of them is hydrology. The legal division [...] Read more.

Pursuant to the Polish Water Law Act of 2017, lakes are divided into those with flowing and stagnant waters. Such a division, originating from the socialist law, is questioned in the scope of numerous disciplines. One of them is hydrology. The legal division introduces criteria uncertain from the hydrological point of view, incomplete, unclear, and difficult to apply. This results in further problems in the implementation of water policy and in the socio-economic sphere. The latter particularly concerns expensive and long-lasting court proceedings, fear of losing ownership of lakes with no financial compensation, and the uncertainty of the binding law. This has a significant impact on the broadly understood management of water resources, such as fisheries, recreation, and water protection. The paper covers a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of Polish legal solutions from a hydrological and water policy perspective. Moreover, it presents the comparison of Polish law and selected legal orders in the scope of ownership of lakes. Full article

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15 pages, 1014 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Framework for Decision-Making Process in Granting Rights to Use Hydropower in the European Context

by Guillaume Voegeli, Ludovic Gaudard, Franco Romerio and Werner Hediger

Water 2018, 10(7), 930; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070930 - 13 Jul 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5357

Abstract

The European electricity landscape is facing an ambivalent situation between: (1) common market platforms; and (2) national and subnational jurisdictions, which impose their specific rules on energy sectors. This particularly affects hydropower, as the latter faces inequalities in the procedures needed for the [...] Read more.

The European electricity landscape is facing an ambivalent situation between: (1) common market platforms; and (2) national and subnational jurisdictions, which impose their specific rules on energy sectors. This particularly affects hydropower, as the latter faces inequalities in the procedures needed for the attribution of water rights. Besides jurisdictional disparities, the European Union requires this attribution to follow competitive processes and the integration of sustainable development goals for energy projects, while other countries connected to the European grid such as Switzerland and Norway still know different procedures and requirements. Therefore, this article addresses concerns regarding the lack of harmonization of water regimes in Europe. Imposing a common jurisdiction to countries connected to the European grid would be politically very challenging. Our approach overcomes this challenge by proposing a process adaptable to specific local rules and allows a comparison of water rights attribution procedures. In this frame, we propose a nine-step process, based on three goals: (1) to enhance competitive access by ensuring the highest rent transfer related to water rights; (2) to prioritize projects closer to sustainability goals; and (3) to ensure the efficiency of the process itself. Full article

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18 pages, 3937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Navigating the Water-Energy Governance Landscape and Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in the Northern Patagonia Region of Argentina

by Laura Forni, Marisa Escobar, Pablo Cello, Marta Marizza, Gustavo Nadal, Leonidas Girardin, Fernando Losano, Lisandro Bucciarelli, Charles Young and David Purkey

Water 2018, 10(6), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060794 - 15 Jun 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6446

Abstract

Water scientists often find themselves interacting with decision-makers with varying levels of technical background. The sustainable management of water resources is complex by nature, and future conditions are highly uncertain, requiring modeling approaches capable of accommodating a variety of parameters and scenarios. Technical [...] Read more.

Water scientists often find themselves interacting with decision-makers with varying levels of technical background. The sustainable management of water resources is complex by nature, and future conditions are highly uncertain, requiring modeling approaches capable of accommodating a variety of parameters and scenarios. Technical findings from these analyses need to be positioned and conducted within the governance institutions to ensure decision-makers utilize them. This paper examines the water resource challenges for a large basin in northern Patagonia, Argentina and utilizes the Robust Decision Support (RDS) framework to evaluate trade-offs and strategies in a participatory process that included researchers and decision-makers. Integrated water resources models using simulation modeling and decision space visualization show significant climate change impacts, which are augmented with irrigated agriculture expansion and increasing hydropower production. Full article

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2017

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1439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Regional Water Optimal Allocation Model Based on the Cobb-Douglas Production Function under Multiple Uncertainties

by Fan Zhang, Qian Tan, Chenglong Zhang, Shanshan Guo and Ping Guo

Water 2017, 9(12), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9120923 - 8 Dec 2017

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6328

Abstract

To optimize the water distribution of three industries based on the water demand prediction under multiple uncertainties, a fuzzy credibility-constrained interval two-stage stochastic programming (FCITSP) model base on the Cobb-Douglas production (CD) function was developed. The CD-FCITSP model integrated fuzzy credibility-constrained programming (FCP), [...] Read more.

To optimize the water distribution of three industries based on the water demand prediction under multiple uncertainties, a fuzzy credibility-constrained interval two-stage stochastic programming (FCITSP) model base on the Cobb-Douglas production (CD) function was developed. The CD-FCITSP model integrated fuzzy credibility-constrained programming (FCP), an interval two-stage stochastic programming (ITSP) method and CD function. The developed model could deal with uncertainties with interval, random, and fuzzy features, reflect tradeoffs between different water use sectors, and provide water managers in arid regions with sustainable and reasonable water-allocation schemes under different credibility scenarios of local policies. Moreover, the relationships between economic benefits and water consumption were taken into consideration via the Cobb-Douglas production function. The developed model was applied to support the optimal allocation of limited water resources in Minqin County, northwest China. The obtained solution demonstrated that the developed method could help local water managers to effectively allocate limited water under multiple uncertainties and different credibility scenarios. In addition, water use efficiency could be promoted and the emissions of major pollutants could be reduced. The developed method could be extended to water management practices in other arid regions. Full article

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3539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Metropolitan Drinking Water Suppliers’ Response to the Diagnostic Tool for Non-Technical Compliance in Limpopo, South Africa

by Avhashoni Dorcas Nefale, Ilunga Kamika and Maggie N. B. Momba

Water 2017, 9(11), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110853 - 3 Nov 2017

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5602

Abstract

Without the planning of non-technical issues, water treatment plants may face challenges in sustaining safe drinking water. Parameters such as the planning of financial resources, human resources, a lack of professional process controllers, poor working conditions, staff shortages and a lack of appropriate [...] Read more.

Without the planning of non-technical issues, water treatment plants may face challenges in sustaining safe drinking water. Parameters such as the planning of financial resources, human resources, a lack of professional process controllers, poor working conditions, staff shortages and a lack of appropriate training of process controllers contribute to the underperformance of drinking water treatment plants. This study aimed at applying the Diagnostic Tool for Non-Technical Compliance to assess the compliance of small drinking water plants with management norms. Six water treatments (Vondo water scheme, Malamulele, Mutshedzi, Mutale regional water treatment plant, Tshedza and Tshedza package plant) were selected from the Vhembe district municipality of the Limpopo province in South Africa. From the abovementioned non-technical parameters, the results showed that during the first assessment period (August 2008 and June 2009) selected water treatment plants scored between 53% and 68% and fell under Class 2, indicating serious challenges requiring attention and improvement. During the second assessment period (November and December 2010), a slight improvement was observed as all plants scored between 72% and 80%, falling under the Class 2 category. Even after corrective actions and remeasurement, none of the plants met the compliance standards, which range from 90% to 100% to obtain the Class 1 compliance standard. The study recommended that tactical and strategic plans that clearly define the operational procedures, process controlling, financial planning, maintenance culture, emergency preparedness and regular monitoring and evaluation should be entrenched for the smooth running of the small water treatment plants. Furthermore, all water services providers and water services authorities should apply the diagnostic tools as developed, which provides guidance on a stepwise procedure on plant operations and management on a daily basis. Full article

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2900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Management Reporting in the Agro-Food Sector in South Africa

by M. Isabel Sánchez-Hernández, Rafael Robina-Ramírez and Willem De Clercq

Water 2017, 9(11), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110830 - 29 Oct 2017

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6841

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to assess whether Corporate Social Responsibility regarding water is considered relevant for sustainability in companies related to agriculture in South Africa, considering that their impact directly influences public access to water. To accomplish this purpose, a qualitative [...] Read more.

The purpose of the study is to assess whether Corporate Social Responsibility regarding water is considered relevant for sustainability in companies related to agriculture in South Africa, considering that their impact directly influences public access to water. To accomplish this purpose, a qualitative approach was developed through the study of the 22 existing companies from the agriculture sector, food and beverages, forest and paper production, and Tobacco, which published their last integrated report within the Global Reporting Initiative framework. A thematic content analysis was carried out, involving the analysis of the written sustainability reports. For data analyses, ATLAS.ti 7.1 software was used to match the main aspects related to water management. Pragmatic advice for practitioners derives from the research results, considering that Corporate Social Responsibility in general—and sustainable water management in particular—represents an opportunity for companies to get competitive advantages in the market. The study also determines the best practices in the field in South Africa with benchmarking purposes. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Combining Econometric, Cost–Benefit, and Financial Methodologies in a Framework to Increase Diffusion and to Predict the Feasibility and Sustainability of Irrigation Schemes: A Case Study in Kurdistan, Iraq

by Fabio Zagonari

Water 2017, 9(11), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110821 - 26 Oct 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5458

Abstract

This paper applies ex ante econometric, cost–benefit, and financial methodologies to increase participation in an irrigation project and predict its financial feasibility and social sustainability in Shahrazoor, Kurdistan, Iraq. I investigated the socio-economic, psycho-cultural, and financial factors that determine participation. The socio-economic part [...] Read more.

This paper applies ex ante econometric, cost–benefit, and financial methodologies to increase participation in an irrigation project and predict its financial feasibility and social sustainability in Shahrazoor, Kurdistan, Iraq. I investigated the socio-economic, psycho-cultural, and financial factors that determine participation. The socio-economic part of the econometric analysis showed that the project was appreciated more by poorer and economically weaker farmers who rely on agriculture than by those who rely on livestock activities. The psycho-cultural part of the econometric analysis emphasized that the project was appreciated more by literate farmers who adopt a maximization (rather than habit) approach. The cost–benefit analysis applied to the irrigation project was tailored to poorer and weaker farmers (i.e., costs of the irrigation scheme and benefits from new cultivation patterns were defined with reference to small farms) by including indirect benefits from both irrigation (e.g., flood control) and hydropower (e.g., eliminated GHG emissions), and determined a 7.1% mean internal rate of return; this was affected more strongly by uncertainty in crop prices than by uncertainty in indirect benefits. The financial analysis highlighted values for water prices, financial returns, and loan rates that met government and farmer budgets. A single framework summarized the main relevant social, economic, and financial conditions, and, by including insights from sensitivity analyses, determined the feasibility and sustainability of the irrigation project. Provided that the water price charged to farmers is between 0.32 and 0.57 USD/m³, and the loan interest rate paid by farmers is smaller than 3.0%, the irrigation project in Shahrazoor is financially feasible for 13.6% of all reliable economic solutions and socially sustainable for 35.8% of the solutions. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Model and Growth Stage Based Variability of the Irrigation Demand of Onion Crops with Predicted Climate Change

by Nadine Schmidt and Jana Zinkernagel

Water 2017, 9(9), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090693 - 11 Sep 2017

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5813

Abstract

Predicted climate change will affect agricultural water resources. Particularly vegetable crops will be concerned due to high water demand and high vulnerability to water scarcity. Present vegetable production already requires irrigation water. To assess future irrigation demand, the impact of climate change needs [...] Read more.

Predicted climate change will affect agricultural water resources. Particularly vegetable crops will be concerned due to high water demand and high vulnerability to water scarcity. Present vegetable production already requires irrigation water. To assess future irrigation demand, the impact of climate change needs to be revealed region- and crop-specifically. For robust predictions, a wide range of scenarios has to be simulated using different climate models. The aim of this study is to identify the climate change impact on water availability, precipitation-free periods and irrigation demand of onion crops cultivated in a German model region. Focus is on crop-specific climatic water balance, considering soil characteristics and temperature-driven plant growth. Simulated climate parameters vary between four climate models. However, in all scenarios climate parameters indicate an increasing water demand until 2100. While amount of irrigation water will not increase tremendously, occurrence and duration of dry periods will require efficient irrigation infrastructure and management. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Challenges to Water Security along the “Emerald Coast”: A Political Ecology of Local Water Governance in Nicaragua

by G. Thomas LaVanchy, Sarah T. Romano and Matthew J. Taylor

Water 2017, 9(9), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090655 - 31 Aug 2017

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8201

Abstract

Despite being a water-rich country, Nicaragua struggles to secure clean water access for many of its residents. In addition to distributional and water quality issues, a prolonged drought affecting all regions of the country has compounded preexisting governance challenges to ensuring rural water [...] Read more.

Despite being a water-rich country, Nicaragua struggles to secure clean water access for many of its residents. In addition to distributional and water quality issues, a prolonged drought affecting all regions of the country has compounded preexisting governance challenges to ensuring rural water needs. This article focuses on a rural community along the southwest Pacific Coast of Tola, Nicaragua, where tourism development and drought converge to produce and exacerbate water insecurity. This article examines this water insecurity in the context of two recent national water laws in Nicaragua (passed in 2007 and 2010 respectively) that sought to provide a more comprehensive legal framework for freshwater water governance. Drawing upon semi-structured interviews and groundwater and meteorological data, we contend that water laws have not effectively mediated the hydrological effects of prolonged drought and tourism development, resulting in pronounced water insecurity for local populations in Tola. We cast the findings of this research as relevant to other water insecure areas in Latin America where industry development and weak policy implementation impact the creation and resolution of local water security—including insecurity compounded by increased climatic variability. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

BMP Optimization to Improve the Economic Viability of Farms in the Upper Watershed of Miyun Reservoir, Beijing, China

by Runzhe Geng, Peihong Yin, Qianru Gong, Xiaoyan Wang and Andrew N. Sharpley

Water 2017, 9(9), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090633 - 24 Aug 2017

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5683

Abstract

Best management practices (BMPs) are being implemented to reduce non-point sources pollution in China and worldwide. There are many types of agricultural BMPs, but their effectiveness differs from farm to farm, depending on where they are applied, how they are applied, and how [...] Read more.

Best management practices (BMPs) are being implemented to reduce non-point sources pollution in China and worldwide. There are many types of agricultural BMPs, but their effectiveness differs from farm to farm, depending on where they are applied, how they are applied, and how they are impacted by weather. Two farms (village Nan Wayao, VNWY and village Liu Jianfang, VLJF) with differing farm systems (crop-based mixed farm and dairy-based farms) located in the upper watershed of Miyun reservoir, Beijing, China were selected. We used the Integrated Farming System Model (IFSM) based on these two farms information to estimate total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) loss from 2000 to 2014, to identify (1) causes of farm nutrient imbalances, (2) key factors causing the imbalances, and (3) viable BMPs to reduce source and TN runoff at the farm scale. Results indicated that these farms had TP losses ranging from 8.2 to 160 kg/ha/year and TN losses from 73.7 to 1391.6 kg/ha/year. Using IFSM, physical (i.e., soil bulk density, available water content, and soil-P) and economic (i.e., diesel and farm loan interest rates) factors are more influential in determining nutrient loss from VNWY than VLJF. Rainfall patterns had a little effect on nutrient use and loss on the dairy farm in VLJF. Changes in available water content and soil bulk density had greater impact on the return for VNWY than VLJF, while changes in loan interest rates were more influential on VLJF. Maximum reductions in nutrient loss were obtained with implementation of the BMPs conservation tillage, reduced fertilizer and manure applications, buffer strips, and storage of poultry manure. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Wastewater Management Efficiency and Determinant Factors in the Chinese Industrial Sector from 2004 to 2014

by Hidemichi Fujii and Shunsuke Managi

Water 2017, 9(8), 586; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9080586 - 5 Aug 2017

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7521

Abstract

This study analyzes industrial wastewater management efficiency using a Chinese provincial dataset from 2004 to 2014. The weighted Russell directional distance model is used to evaluate the efficiency of management practices. Determinants analysis was conducted based on governmental policy, pollution abatement, and market [...] Read more.

This study analyzes industrial wastewater management efficiency using a Chinese provincial dataset from 2004 to 2014. The weighted Russell directional distance model is used to evaluate the efficiency of management practices. Determinants analysis was conducted based on governmental policy, pollution abatement, and market factors to identify the main drivers of industrial wastewater management efficiency in China. The results indicate that the wastewater management efficiency improved in the eastern and central regions. However, there is a significant efficiency gap between provinces in the western region. Moreover, the main determinants of wastewater management efficiency differ among regions and pollutants. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Water Tariff Reform on Water Consumption in Different Housing Typologies in Calvià (Mallorca)

by Bartolomé Deyà-Tortella, Celso Garcia, William Nilsson and Dolores Tirado

Water 2017, 9(6), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9060425 - 12 Jun 2017

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6636

Abstract

This study analyses water prices and residential water consumption using micro data for three different housing typologies in Calvia with contrasting household characteristics. We examine the effect of a price reform of the sanitation fee (implemented in 2013) on the average prices and [...] Read more.

This study analyses water prices and residential water consumption using micro data for three different housing typologies in Calvia with contrasting household characteristics. We examine the effect of a price reform of the sanitation fee (implemented in 2013) on the average prices and their water consumption in each of the areas. Our results conclude that the aggregate water consumption decreased only during the year of the reform, but increased the following year. The increase in the amount of water consumed by the houses of higher standards of living was greater than the small decrease in water consumption by families with medium and low-medium incomes. Thus, the reform had a very modest effect as regards reducing water consumption, and many households increased their consumption despite the higher prices. From a water policy perspective, we recommend a water tariff scheme differentiated according to the housing characteristics in order to find the most effective and fairest way to save water. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Accomplishing Water Strategy Policies in Hospitals: The Role of Management Information Systems and Managerial Styles

by David Naranjo-Gil

Water 2017, 9(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9020107 - 10 Feb 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6030

Abstract

Hospitals are using more sophisticated and comprehensive management information systems to implement multiple strategic policies towards water cost saving and water quality enhancement. However, they do not always achieve the intended strategic goals. This paper analyzes how managerial styles interact with sophisticated management [...] Read more.

Hospitals are using more sophisticated and comprehensive management information systems to implement multiple strategic policies towards water cost saving and water quality enhancement. However, they do not always achieve the intended strategic goals. This paper analyzes how managerial styles interact with sophisticated management information systems to achieve different water strategic priorities. How proactive vs. reactive managerial styles moderate the effects of management information systems on water cost saving and water quality enhancement is analyzed. Relationships are explored using data collected from 122 general services directors in Spanish public hospitals. The findings show a positive effect of sophisticated management information systems on the achievement of water policies focused on cost saving and quality enhancement. Results also show a different moderated effect of managerial styles; thus, sophisticated management information systems with a proactive managerial style facilitate managers to achieve better water quality policies rather than water cost saving policies. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Understanding Public Perception of and Participation in Non-Revenue Water Management in Malaysia to Support Urban Water Policy

by Chee Hui Lai, Ngai Weng Chan and Ranjan Roy

Water 2017, 9(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9010026 - 5 Jan 2017

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 11152

Abstract

In contextualising the serious water loss, inefficient resource utilization, and ineffective water utility management in Malaysia, the objective of this study is to understand the public’s perception of non-revenue water (NRW) management in order to provide policy inputs, and to determine ways to [...] Read more.

In contextualising the serious water loss, inefficient resource utilization, and ineffective water utility management in Malaysia, the objective of this study is to understand the public’s perception of non-revenue water (NRW) management in order to provide policy inputs, and to determine ways to improve public participation in NRW reduction. Findings reveal that there is currently only meagre public participation in NRW management in Malaysia, with a majority of the respondents demonstrating a lack of knowledge and awareness on NRW; over-dependence on water utility and government agencies in reducing NRW rates; and failure to submit a report when a leaking pipe is noticed. Educating the public on the importance of reducing NRW and promoting public interests and concerns around water tariffs, is essential to improve NRW reductions in Malaysia. Community-led strategies to better engage the public in addressing NRW-related issues have to be enhanced. To this end, concrete policy implications derived from the findings of the study are outlined. Full article

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2016

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1503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploration of an Optimal Policy for Water Resources Management Including the Introduction of Advanced Sewage Treatment Technologies in Zaozhuang City, China

by Gengyu He, Jingjing Yan, Jinghua Sha, Ci Song and Shuai Zhong

Water 2016, 8(12), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8120608 - 21 Dec 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7427

Abstract

Water shortage and water pollution are important factors restricting sustainable social and economic development. As a typical coal resource-exhausted city and a node city of the South-to-North Water Transfer East Route Project in China, Zaozhuang City’s water resources management faces multiple constraints such [...] Read more.

Water shortage and water pollution are important factors restricting sustainable social and economic development. As a typical coal resource-exhausted city and a node city of the South-to-North Water Transfer East Route Project in China, Zaozhuang City’s water resources management faces multiple constraints such as transformation of economic development, restriction of groundwater exploitation, and improvement of water environment. In this paper, we develop a linear optimization model by input–output analysis to study water resources management with the introduction of three advanced sewage treatment technologies for pollutant treatment and reclaimed water production. The simulation results showed that from 2014 to 2020, Zaozhuang City will realize an annual GDP growth rate of 7.1% with an annual chemical oxygen demand (COD) emissions reduction rate of 5.5%. The proportion of primary industry, secondary industry, and tertiary industry would be adjusted to 5.6%, 40.8%, and 53.6%, respectively. The amount of reclaimed water supply could be increased by 91% and groundwater supply could be decreased by 6%. Based on the simulation, this model proposes a scientific reference on water resources management policies, including water environment control, water supply plan, and financial subsidy, to realize the sustainable development of economy and water resources usage. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Water Governance in Bangladesh: An Evaluation of Institutional and Political Context

by Ngai Weng Chan, Ranjan Roy and Brian C. Chaffin

Water 2016, 8(9), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8090403 - 15 Sep 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 15443

Abstract

Water crises are often crises of governance. To address interrelated issues of securing access to sustainable sources of safe water for the world’s populations, scholar and practitioners have suggested fostering improved modes of water governance that support the implementation of integrated water resource [...] Read more.

Water crises are often crises of governance. To address interrelated issues of securing access to sustainable sources of safe water for the world’s populations, scholar and practitioners have suggested fostering improved modes of water governance that support the implementation of integrated water resource management (IWRM). Recently, implementation of an IWRM approach was announced as a target for achieving Goal 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This study employs an analytical hierarchy process with a SWOT analysis to assess the current institutional and political context of water governance in Bangladesh and evaluate IWRM as a means to achieve the SDGs. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Measuring the Sustainability of Water Plans in Inter-Regional Spanish River Basins

by María M. Borrego-Marín and Laura Riesgo

Water 2016, 8(8), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080342 - 11 Aug 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7018

Abstract

This paper analyses and compares the sustainability of the water plans in the Spanish River basins according to the objectives of the Water Framework Directive. Even though the concept of sustainability has been traditionally associated with the triple bottom line framework, composed of [...] Read more.

This paper analyses and compares the sustainability of the water plans in the Spanish River basins according to the objectives of the Water Framework Directive. Even though the concept of sustainability has been traditionally associated with the triple bottom line framework, composed of economic, environmental, and social dimensions, in this paper sustainability has been enlarged by including governance aspects. Two multicriteria decision analysis approaches are proposed to aggregate the sustainability dimensions. Results show that the environmental dimension plays the most important role in the whole sustainability (40%) of water basins, followed by both economic and social criteria (25%). By contrast, the dimension of governance is the least important for sustainability (11%). A classification of the Spanish basins according to their sustainability indicates that the water agency with the highest sustainability is Western Cantabrian, followed by Eastern Cantabrian and Tagus. By contrast, Minho-Sil, Jucar, and Douro are the least sustainable. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Water Management Options for Rice Cultivation in a Temperate Area: A Multi-Objective Model to Explore Economic and Water Saving Results

by Federica Monaco, Guido Sali, Manel Ben Hassen, Arianna Facchi, Marco Romani and Giampiero Valè

Water 2016, 8(8), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080336 - 8 Aug 2016

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8201

Abstract

Due to the changing climatic and environmental conditions, modifications in agricultural and water policies have been made, and irrigated agriculture has to face the challenge of making a rational and optimal use of the water resource effectively available. This urges rice farming, strongly [...] Read more.

Due to the changing climatic and environmental conditions, modifications in agricultural and water policies have been made, and irrigated agriculture has to face the challenge of making a rational and optimal use of the water resource effectively available. This urges rice farming, strongly and traditionally linked to water, to change the modalities for the use of the resource. If on one hand water saving techniques should be preferred, a different water management in paddy fields may lead to lower yields and higher production costs, with consequent repercussions on farm incomes. The paper recognizes the disagreement between environmental and economic concerns and aims at contributing to the discussion about how to reconcile them by adopting alternative irrigation strategies. From this perspective, a multi-objective linear optimization model is used to explore the trade-offs between conflicting objectives in a rice-growing area in Northern Italy. The model returns the optimal allocation of land subject to three different irrigation strategies, as those previously performed in experimental fields; in addition, a scenario analysis is run to simulate reduced resource availability. Results demonstrate the key role of prioritizing one objective over the other, while introducing cultivars more suitable for dry cultivation enables enlarging the frontier of optimal solutions. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Extraction and Preference Ordering of Multireservoir Water Supply Rules in Dry Years

by Ling Kang, Song Zhang, Yi Ding and Xiaocong He

Water 2016, 8(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8010028 - 20 Jan 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6577

Abstract

This paper presents a new methodology of combined use of the nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) and the approach of successive elimination of alternatives based on order and degree of efficiency (SEABODE) in identifying the most preferred multireservoir water supply rules in [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new methodology of combined use of the nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) and the approach of successive elimination of alternatives based on order and degree of efficiency (SEABODE) in identifying the most preferred multireservoir water supply rules in dry years. First, the suggested operation rules consists of a two-point type time-varying hedging policy for a single reservoir and a simple proportional allocation policy of common water demand between two parallel reservoirs. Then, the NSGA-II is employed to derive enough noninferior operation rules (design alternatives) in terms of two conflicting objectives (1) minimizing the total deficit ratio (TDR) of all demands of the entire system in operation horizon, and (2) minimizing the maximum deficit ratio (MDR) of water supply in a single period. Next, the SEABODE, a multicriteria decision making (MCDM) procedure, is applied to further eliminate alternatives based on the concept of efficiency of order k with degree p. In SEABODE, the reservoir performance indices and water shortage indices are selected as evaluation criteria for preference ordering among the design alternatives obtained by NSGA-II. The proposed methodology was tested on a regional water supply system with three reservoirs located in the Jialing River, China, where the results demonstrate its applicability and merits. Full article

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2014

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169 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Changing Perspectives on the Economics of Water

by Davide Viaggi, Giacomo Zanni and Meri Raggi

Water 2014, 6(10), 2969-2977; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6102969 - 30 Sep 2014

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6652

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of the special issue on “Water policy, productivity and economic efficiency”. In particular, it includes an overview of key topics on the future of water as a productive factor, in the context of alternative uses and perspective scenarios. [...] Read more.

This paper provides an overview of the special issue on “Water policy, productivity and economic efficiency”. In particular, it includes an overview of key topics on the future of water as a productive factor, in the context of alternative uses and perspective scenarios. The selected papers cover a wide range of relevant economic issues and are presented in three categories: productivity assessment, institutional framework and mechanisms, and governance aspects. The paper concludes by discussing future research challenges in this field. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Simulating Volumetric Pricing for Irrigation Water Operational Cost Recovery under Complete and Perfect Information

by Luca Giraldo, Raffaele Cortignani and Gabriele Dono

Water 2014, 6(5), 1204-1220; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6051204 - 7 May 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7154

Abstract

This study evaluated the implementation of a volumetric and cost-recovery pricing method for irrigation water under symmetric information conditions without the inclusion of implementation costs. The study was carried out in two steps. First, a cost function was estimated for irrigation water supplied [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the implementation of a volumetric and cost-recovery pricing method for irrigation water under symmetric information conditions without the inclusion of implementation costs. The study was carried out in two steps. First, a cost function was estimated for irrigation water supplied by a water user association to a typical Mediterranean agricultural area, based on a translog function. Second, the economic impact of a pricing method designed according to this cost function was simulated using a mathematical programming territorial model for the same agricultural area. The outcomes were compared with those for the current pricing method. The impacts of this pricing method are discussed in terms of its neutral effects on total farm income and, conversely, the importance of the redistributive effects. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Integrated Groundwater Resources Management Using the DPSIR Approach in a GIS Environment Context: A Case Study from the Gallikos River Basin, North Greece

by Christos Mattas, Konstantinos S. Voudouris and Andreas Panagopoulos

Water 2014, 6(4), 1043-1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6041043 - 24 Apr 2014

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 12613

Abstract

The Gallikos River basin is located in the northern part of Greece, and the coastal section is part of a deltaic system. The basin has been influenced by anthropogenic activities during the last decades, leading to continuous water resource degradation. The holistic approach [...] Read more.

The Gallikos River basin is located in the northern part of Greece, and the coastal section is part of a deltaic system. The basin has been influenced by anthropogenic activities during the last decades, leading to continuous water resource degradation. The holistic approach of the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework was applied in order to investigate the main causes and origins of pressures and to optimize the measures for sustainable management of water resources. The major driving forces that affect the Gallikos River basin are urbanization, intensive agriculture, industry and the regional development strategy. The main pressures on water resources are the overexploitation of aquifers, water quality degradation, and decrease of river discharge. Recommended responses were based on the Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC, and sum up to rationalization of water resources, land use management and appropriate utilization of waste, especially so effluent. The application of the DPSIR analysis in this paper links the socioeconomic drivers to the water resource pressures, the responses based on the WFD and the national legislation and is as a useful tool for land-use planning and decision making in the area of water protection. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

An Input-Output Assessment of Water Productivity in the Castile and León Region (Spain)

by Carlos Dionisio Pérez Blanco and Thomas Thaler

Water 2014, 6(4), 929-944; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6040929 - 14 Apr 2014

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9822

Abstract

The failure in the past to acknowledge the limits of water supply and to decouple economic development from water demand has resulted in a water dependent growth model currently threatened by increasing scarcity and droughts. Consequently, there is now an urgent need to [...] Read more.

The failure in the past to acknowledge the limits of water supply and to decouple economic development from water demand has resulted in a water dependent growth model currently threatened by increasing scarcity and droughts. Consequently, there is now an urgent need to use sparse water resources in a more sustainable and efficient way. This demands a comprehensive understanding of water productivity and the linkages among economic sectors to illustrate the tradeoffs in water reallocations from productive sectors to priority uses (household and urban uses). This paper develops a methodology based on the Hypothetical Extraction Method to estimate inter-temporal direct and indirect water productivity. The method is applied to the Spanish region of Castile and León. Results confirm the existence of a relevant water productivity gap between the agriculture (the largest water consumer) and that of the other sectors, which are nonetheless largely dependent on the agricultural output (and thus, on agricultural water demand). Results also show that Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, say about 1%, results in an increase of indirect water productivity in the manufacturing blocks (0.49% and 0.38%), energy and water (0.39%) and service blocks (0.41%), providing evidence of the existence of a Verdoorn’s Law for water. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Do Estimates of Water Productivity Enhance Understanding of Farm-Level Water Management?

by Dennis Wichelns

Water 2014, 6(4), 778-795; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6040778 - 27 Mar 2014

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 11560

Abstract

Estimates of water productivity are appearing with increasing frequency in the literature pertaining to agronomy, water management, and water policy. Some authors report such estimates as one of the outcome variables of experiment station studies, while others calculate water productivities when comparing regional [...] Read more.

Estimates of water productivity are appearing with increasing frequency in the literature pertaining to agronomy, water management, and water policy. Some authors report such estimates as one of the outcome variables of experiment station studies, while others calculate water productivities when comparing regional crop production information. Many authors suggest or imply that higher values of water productivity are needed to ensure that future food production goals are achieved. Yet maximizing water productivity might not be consistent with farm-level goals or with societal objectives regarding water allocation and management. Farmers in both rainfed and irrigated settings must address a complex set of issues pertaining to risk, uncertainty, prices, and opportunity costs, when selecting activities and determining optimal strategies. It is not clear that farmers in either setting will or should choose to maximize water productivity. Upon examining water productivity, both conceptually and empirically, using published versions of crop production functions, I conclude that estimates of water productivity contain too little information to enhance understanding of farm-level water management. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Water Trading: Locational Water Rights, Economic Efficiency, and Third-Party Effect

by Ming-Feng Hung, Daigee Shaw and Bin-Tzong Chie

Water 2014, 6(3), 723-744; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6030723 - 24 Mar 2014

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7636

Abstract

Rivers flow downstream and unidirectionally. However, this fact has not yet been utilized in the institutional design for water trading. By utilizing this characteristic, we first designed a water trading system of “locational water rights.” This new system is able to mitigate the [...] Read more.

Rivers flow downstream and unidirectionally. However, this fact has not yet been utilized in the institutional design for water trading. By utilizing this characteristic, we first designed a water trading system of “locational water rights.” This new system is able to mitigate the return flow-related and instream flow-related third-party effects of volumetric reliability from water transfers. We provided mathematical proof of its economic efficiency. We then applied this water trading system to the case of the Choushui River basin in Taiwan. In this area, agriculture is highly developed while domestic and industrial water demands have increased rapidly. Using an agent-based model simulation, we estimated the potential economic benefits of implementing the system of locational water rights in the Choushui River basin. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Understanding Subjectivities in the Regulation of Local Water Services: A Q-Methodology Study of Elected Public Officers in Italy

by Alberto Asquer

Water 2014, 6(3), 670-693; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6030670 - 24 Mar 2014

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7204

Abstract

In sub-national governments, elected public officers can exercise considerable influence on the regulation of local water services, in such ways as, for example, contributing to the design of local regulatory institutions, to the formulation of tariff rules, and to the supervision of water [...] Read more.

In sub-national governments, elected public officers can exercise considerable influence on the regulation of local water services, in such ways as, for example, contributing to the design of local regulatory institutions, to the formulation of tariff rules, and to the supervision of water firms. Relatively little we know, however, about how elected public officers think about the regulation of local water services. This Q methodology study provides some evidence of the variety of opinions held on how local water services are delivered, how well they perform, and how they should be regulated among elected public officers in local governments in Italy. The study shows that the policy discourse on water regulation in Italy is highly fragmented into alternative and partially conflicting views. These findings bear some relevance for better understanding sources of stability and change of water regulatory regimes at the local level. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Inexact Mathematical Modeling for the Identification of Water Trading Policy under Uncertainty

by Xueting Zeng, Yongping Li, Guohe Huang and Liyang Yu

Water 2014, 6(2), 229-252; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6020229 - 27 Jan 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7196

Abstract

In this study, a two-stage inexact credibility-constrained programming (TICP) method is developed for identifying the efficiency of water trading under multiple uncertainties. TICP can tackle uncertainties expressed as probabilistic distributions, discrete intervals and fuzzy sets. It can also provide an effective linkage between [...] Read more.

In this study, a two-stage inexact credibility-constrained programming (TICP) method is developed for identifying the efficiency of water trading under multiple uncertainties. TICP can tackle uncertainties expressed as probabilistic distributions, discrete intervals and fuzzy sets. It can also provide an effective linkage between the benefits to the system and the associated economic penalties attributed to the violation of the predefined policies for water resource allocation. The developed TICP method is applied to a real case of water resource allocation management and planning in the Kaidu-kongque River Basin, which is a typical arid region in Northwest China. Different water resource allocation policies based on changes to the water permit and trading ratio levels are examined. The results indicate that the efficiencies of water trading are sensitive to the degrees of satisfaction (i.e., interval credibility levels), which correspond to different water resource management policies. Furthermore, the comparison of benefits and shortages between trading and non-trading schemes implies that trading is more optimal and effective than non-trading. The results are helpful for making decisions about water allocation in an efficient way and for gaining insight into the tradeoffs between water trading and economic objectives. Full article

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2013

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576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of Disproportionate Costs in WFD: The Experience of Emilia-Romagna

by Francesco Galioto, Valentina Marconi, Meri Raggi and Davide Viaggi

Water 2013, 5(4), 1967-1995; https://doi.org/10.3390/w5041967 - 27 Nov 2013

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8873

Abstract

This study develops a methodology for the assessment of disproportionate costs according to the Water Framework Directive guidelines. The originality of the approach lies in the focus on the interdependencies between water bodies and the consideration of the multiple interactions between measures and [...] Read more.

This study develops a methodology for the assessment of disproportionate costs according to the Water Framework Directive guidelines. The originality of the approach lies in the focus on the interdependencies between water bodies and the consideration of the multiple interactions between measures and pressures. However, the broad architecture of the study fits into a wider assessment procedure, already developed in recent studies. Specifically, a cost effectiveness analysis, implemented to select an efficient combination of measures, is integrated with a cost benefit analysis, which allows for the evaluation of the economic feasibility of the proposed actions. This methodology is applied to the Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy). In spite of the uncertainties in the estimations of costs and benefits, the study enables the identification of areas where disproportionate costs are more likely to occur. The results show that disproportionality tends to increase from foothill regions, where most of the functional uses of regional water resources are found, to plain areas, where the sources of pressure tend to be located. Finally, the study offers policy direction for the selection of measures in the case study region. Full article

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458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pricing Policies in Managing Water Resources in Agriculture: An Application of Contract Theory to Unmetered Water

by Francesco Galioto, Meri Raggi and Davide Viaggi

Water 2013, 5(4), 1502-1516; https://doi.org/10.3390/w5041502 - 27 Sep 2013

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7632

Abstract

The paper explores how agricultural water pricing could contribute to lowering water demand when uses are unobserved (asymmetric information). The topic of the paper is justified by the fact that most water authorities worldwide do not control water uses at the farm scale. [...] Read more.

The paper explores how agricultural water pricing could contribute to lowering water demand when uses are unobserved (asymmetric information). The topic of the paper is justified by the fact that most water authorities worldwide do not control water uses at the farm scale. The study draws inspiration from the pricing policies of a Reclamation and Irrigation Board in Northern Italy. It analyses the optimal design of current tariff strategies with respect both to the actual regulator’s goals and the cost recovery objective of an ideal regulator driven by European Water Framework Directive principles and having full information. The analysis is based on the logic of a Principal-Agent model implemented as a mathematical non-linear programming model. Given the current pricing structure and assuming zero transaction costs, the results show a relevant increase in net benefits for the ideal scenario with respect to the actual one as water use costs increase. Benefits differences between the two scenarios mark a limit in value below which mechanisms able to solve the existing asymmetries between the principal and the agents are economically desirable. The study concludes by showing that the current regulator’s discriminatory strategy (pricing structure) would be better justified with higher levels of cost for water use. However, the existence of non-zero transaction costs related to the control of water uses points to the need for further research in order to analyze incentive mechanisms in the absence of water metering. Full article

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2011

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443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Explaining Non-Take-up of Water Subsidy

by Momi Dahan and Udi Nisan

Water 2011, 3(4), 1174-1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3041174 - 16 Dec 2011

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6923

Abstract

We use two separate quasi-natural experiments to explore the relative importance of information and administrative costs in explaining non-take-up of water subsidy. The first “experiment” shows that the take-up rate of a household with lower administrative costs is not significantly different from otherwise [...] Read more.

We use two separate quasi-natural experiments to explore the relative importance of information and administrative costs in explaining non-take-up of water subsidy. The first “experiment” shows that the take-up rate of a household with lower administrative costs is not significantly different from otherwise identical households. In contrast, using the same program, the second “experiment” reveals that the take-up rate of a household that is more likely to be informed is substantially higher compared to otherwise identical households. These findings support the idea that information plays a major role in explaining non-take-up of water subsidy. Full article

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349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Profitability of Nitrification Inhibitors for Abatement of Nitrate Leaching on a Representative Dairy Farm in the Waikato Region of New Zealand

by Graeme J. Doole and Upa H. Paragahawewa

Water 2011, 3(4), 1031-1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3041031 - 11 Nov 2011

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7703

Abstract

Direct policies for the management of nonpoint source pollution are difficult to apply given asymmetric information, spatial and temporal variability, and uncertainty. There is increasing awareness that these limitations may be overcome where profitable mitigation practices are broadly adopted by polluters. Nitrification inhibitors [...] Read more.

Direct policies for the management of nonpoint source pollution are difficult to apply given asymmetric information, spatial and temporal variability, and uncertainty. There is increasing awareness that these limitations may be overcome where profitable mitigation practices are broadly adopted by polluters. Nitrification inhibitors (chemicals applied to paddocks that retard the nitrification process in soils) are a rare example of a mitigation practice that reduces pollutant loads and potentially increases farm profit through promoting pasture production. This study investigates their capacity to achieve both goals to inform policy makers and producers of their potential for simultaneously improving farm profit and water quality. With an assumed 10 percent increase in pasture production in response to nitrification inhibitor application, nitrification inhibitors are a profitable innovation because greater pasture production supports higher stocking rates. Nonetheless, their overall impact on farm profit is low, even when the cost of inhibitors or their impact on subsequent pasture production is substantially altered. However, inhibitors are found to be a critical mitigation practice for farmers posed with decreasing leaching loads to satisfy regulatory requirements. These findings suggest that, despite their shortcomings for nonpoint pollution regulation, direct policies appear to be the only way to motivate producers to account for their impact on environmental values given the current lack of profitable mitigations. Full article

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4020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Importance of Institutional Asymmetries to the Development of Binational Aquifer Assessment Programs: The Arizona-Sonora Experience

by Sharon B. Megdal and Christopher A. Scott

Water 2011, 3(3), 949-963; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3030949 - 23 Sep 2011

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 9987

Abstract

Setting water policy depends fundamentally on the location of the supply and demand for water and the legal/institutional framework for water management. Within and across nations, laws and structures for water management decision making vary, often significantly. Recognizing these differences can aid in [...] Read more.

Setting water policy depends fundamentally on the location of the supply and demand for water and the legal/institutional framework for water management. Within and across nations, laws and structures for water management decision making vary, often significantly. Recognizing these differences can aid in overcoming challenges inherent to the assessment and management of transboundary waters. This paper examines current binational efforts to develop the scientific information to support water management decision making along the United States-Mexico border. The particular focus is on transboundary aquifers along the border shared by the states of Arizona in the United States and Sonora in Mexico. Legislation enacted in the United States (Public Law 109–448) established a governmental-academic partnership to assess transboundary aquifers. The paper discusses the establishment of a working partnership between Mexico and the United States, which led to an official binational cooperative framework for transboundary assessment. It explains how the extensive effort to recognize and accommodate asymmetries in the underlying legal and regulatory frameworks for water management was essential to meeting the objectives of both countries. The focus of the binational investigations is briefly discussed. The paper concludes by noting the opportunities for additional cross-border scientific and water management collaboration should funding and institutional commitments continue. Full article

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292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Effects of Legislative Framework Changes in Groundwater Use Rights for Irrigation

by Giacomo Giannoccaro, Maurizio Prosperi and Giacomo Zanni

Water 2011, 3(3), 906-922; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3030906 - 19 Sep 2011

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7296

Abstract

In most countries, groundwater resource is a public good, and the entitlement of use rights by the public authority to final users differs according to a country-specific legislative framework. In Italy, groundwater extraction has been regulated through non-tradable private licenses. At present, the [...] Read more.

In most countries, groundwater resource is a public good, and the entitlement of use rights by the public authority to final users differs according to a country-specific legislative framework. In Italy, groundwater extraction has been regulated through non-tradable private licenses. At present, the public authority needs to reform the current legislative framework, in order to comply with the Water Framework Directive, aimed at the enhancement of the efficiency of the resource use. This research analyzes the effects of reforming the current framework based on non-tradable use rights, by comparing two different liberalization scenarios: an intra-sector market, and a regional market. Although positive economic benefits are generally expected from the liberalization of use rights at aggregated level, we want to analyze whether effects of the legislative framework causes uneven changes on some farm groups. The empirical case study refers to the Fortore river basin (South of Italy), where groundwater covers about 50–80% of current needs, and informal (though illegal) water markets across neighbor farmers already exist. From the findings, there is no evidence that the exchange liberalization of groundwater use rights leads to gains in terms of the value added and the farmer’s revenue. In addition, in the case of an auction system regulated by the public authority, farmers whose water productivity is higher may be able to gain, while others may suffer some losses. In this case, resistances from farmers’ associations towards the legislative framework reform may arise. Full article

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4076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Participatory Approach for Integrated Basin Planning with Focus on Disaster Risk Reduction: The Case of the Limpopo River

by Mathias Spaliviero, Morgan De Dapper, Chris M.Mannaerts and Antonio Yachan

Water 2011, 3(3), 737-763; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3030737 - 29 Jun 2011

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 12177

Abstract

This paper defends the idea that a participatory approach is a suitable method for basin planning integrating both water and land aspects. Assertions made are based on scientific literature review and corroborated by field experience and research carried out in the Limpopo River [...] Read more.

This paper defends the idea that a participatory approach is a suitable method for basin planning integrating both water and land aspects. Assertions made are based on scientific literature review and corroborated by field experience and research carried out in the Limpopo River basin, a transboundary river located in southern Africa which is affected by periodical floods. The paper explains how a basin strategic plan can be drafted and disaster risk reduction strategies derived by combining different types of activities using a bottom-up approach, despite an institutional context which operates through traditional top-down mechanisms. In particular, the “Living with Floods” experience in the lower Limpopo River, in Mozambique, is described as a concrete example of a disaster adaptation measure resulting from a participatory planning exercise. In conclusion, the adopted method and obtained results are discussed and recommendations are formulated for potential replication in similar contexts of the developing world. Full article

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447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generic Modelling of Faecal Indicator Organism Concentrations in the UK

by John Crowther, Danyel I. Hampson, Ian J. Bateman, David Kay, Paulette E. Posen, Carl M. Stapleton and Mark D. Wyer

Water 2011, 3(2), 682-701; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3020682 - 20 Jun 2011

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7757

Abstract

To meet European Water Framework Directive requirements, data are needed on faecal indicator organism (FIO) concentrations in rivers to enable the more heavily polluted to be targeted for remedial action. Due to the paucity of FIO data for the UK, especially under high-flow [...] Read more.

To meet European Water Framework Directive requirements, data are needed on faecal indicator organism (FIO) concentrations in rivers to enable the more heavily polluted to be targeted for remedial action. Due to the paucity of FIO data for the UK, especially under high-flow hydrograph event conditions, there is an urgent need by the policy community for generic models that can accurately predict FIO concentrations, thus informing integrated catchment management programmes. This paper reports the development of regression models to predict base- and high-flow faecal coliform (FC) and enterococci (EN) concentrations for 153 monitoring points across 14 UK catchments, using land cover, population (human and livestock density) and other variables that may affect FIO source strength, transport and die-off. Statistically significant models were developed for both FC and EN, with greater explained variance achieved in the high-flow models. Both land cover and, in particular, population variables are significant predictors of FIO concentrations, with r² maxima for EN of 0.571 and 0.624, respectively. It is argued that the resulting models can be applied, with confidence, to other UK catchments, both to predict FIO concentrations in unmonitored watercourses and evaluate the likely impact of different land use/stocking level and human population change scenarios. Full article

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257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Managing Water Supply through Joint Regional Municipal Authorities in Finland: Two Comparative Cases

by Marko Stenroos and Tapio S. Katko

Water 2011, 3(2), 667-681; https://doi.org/10.3390/w3020667 - 15 Jun 2011

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6844

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to analyze two Finnish Joint Regional Authorities for Water Supply—namely the Raisio-Naantali Joint Municipal Authority for Water Supply (established in 1957) and the Tuusula Region Joint Municipal Authority for Water Supply (established in 1967)—for assessing the development [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper is to analyze two Finnish Joint Regional Authorities for Water Supply—namely the Raisio-Naantali Joint Municipal Authority for Water Supply (established in 1957) and the Tuusula Region Joint Municipal Authority for Water Supply (established in 1967)—for assessing the development of supra-municipal water governance. The above two cases make it possible to analyze and assess water policies in settings where the owners are groups of municipalities. The analysis is based on two separately conducted case studies. The study data consist of several types of materials: Annual reports, local government documents, etc. The conducted interviews were semi-structured with some themes defined beforehand. The studies describe two authorities in the context of historical development and as a part of local development. Full article

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