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Article

Urbanization Influences on the Song Diversity of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Northeast China

by
Xueying Sun
1,
Muhammad Suliman
1,
Qingming Wu
1,*,
Paiyizulamu Shaliwa
2,
Hongfei Zou
1,
Jingli Zhu
3,* and
Muhammad Sadiq Khan
4
1
College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, No. 26, Hexing Road, Harbin 150040, China
2
Forestry Planning Institute of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi 830049, China
3
Heilongjiang Vocational Institute of Ecological Engineering, Harbin 150025, China
4
Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2025, 17(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020103
Submission received: 24 December 2024 / Revised: 26 January 2025 / Accepted: 27 January 2025 / Published: 30 January 2025
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Abstract

:
The continuous advancement of urbanization and the expansion of cities inevitably have certain impacts on urban wildlife. Birds are a highly visible group of urban wildlife, widely distributed and sensitive to environmental changes. Birds’ song is an important way of conveying information; the effective conveyance and transmission of bird songs are crucial for attracting mates and successful reproduction. However, the impact of urban development on the songs of many birds remains unknown. This study compared the differences in song characteristics (maximum frequency, minimum frequency, main frequency, and duration) of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) at six different research sites with different levels of urbanization, in order to explore the song response patterns of birds to urbanization. The results indicate that urbanization leads to a reduction in avian song diversity and a convergence in song parameters. Birds in different life history stages show inconsistent responses to urbanization. During the overwintering period, there are no significant differences in the minimum frequency and duration of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s song, almost no significant differences in the maximum frequency, and the main frequency of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s song, as distributed in the Forest Botanical Garden (FBG) shows some differences compared to other study sites. During the breeding period, there are no significant differences in the main frequency of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s song, while other parameters exhibit varying degrees of differences. Comprehensive analysis reveals that urbanization has varying impacts on the song diversity of the Eurasian Nuthatch across different life history stages. During the overwintering period, there is a significant reduction in song diversity, with a pronounced homogenization effect; during the breeding period, the birds’ songs are more diverse, with only the main frequency showing a significant homogenization effect. It is speculated that birds may strike a certain balance between adapting to urbanization and survival reproduction.

1. Introduction

Bird song is an important means of communication for birds. Complex songs play a significant role in attracting mates and defending territories [1]. Whether an individual can successfully attract a mate and achieve reproduction largely depends on the complexity of the song and its effective transmission and conveyance [2]. There are approximately 10,000 species of birds worldwide, of which 72% have one or more types of song. The diversity of bird songs can generally be measured by the frequency and duration of phrases or syllables, and the size of the repertoire [3]. Bird songs contain a wealth of biological information and are influenced by a variety of factors, such as population size and individual or environmental factors [3,4,5]. Cities can be considered the newest ecosystems on Earth, and urbanization is a complex and dynamic historical process [6,7,8]. As urbanization progresses, environmental changes have become significant issues faced by countries worldwide [9,10]. A series of environmental changes, such as vegetation coverage, urban impervious surface area, noise pollution, light pollution, and habitat fragmentation, have already had a certain impact on the survival and reproduction of wildlife [11,12,13,14,15]. Human activities have altered most of the natural environment globally, and species on the brink of extinction due to human influence are more numerous than at any other time [16].
Urban biodiversity is crucial for maintaining the health of urban ecosystems and enhancing human well-being. The impact of urbanization on biodiversity is one of the leading conservation issues internationally but is also an understudied topic [17]. Urban expansion is leading to unprecedented landscape homogenization worldwide, and this uniformity in urban form brings about serious environmental, social, and health issues [18,19]. Urbanization is considered one of the most significant impacts of humans on Earth’s ecosystems, significantly reducing biodiversity and leading to the homogenization of biological communities. Existing studies have shown that the fragmentation of natural landscapes can lead to the homogenization of functional diversity in birds and a decline in ecosystem service functions [20]. A study reported changes through quantitative analysis, spatial distribution, and species similarity of bird diversity under urbanization determining that homogenized urban environments increase the similarity of bird species composition between different regions [17]. Currently, research on the impact of urbanization on birds focuses on species diversity in avian communities, their habitats, food resources, and tolerance [21,22]. However, there are few studies on the impact of urbanization on bird song diversity.
With the rapid development of multidisciplinary fields such as digital recording technology, big data, and artificial intelligence, bioacoustics has advanced swiftly, and the study and application of animal acoustics have become increasingly widespread [23,24]. Bird song serves as a crucial communication tool for activities such as flocking, foraging, courtship, and territory defense [25,26,27]. So much so that birds inhabiting dense habitats or nocturnal activities have weakened visual signaling due to light barriers, making their acoustic signals particularly important in communication [28]. Birds sing spontaneously, emitting hundreds of songs each day [29]. Under the combined effects of genetics and environment, bird songs exhibit species specificity and individual differences [30]. Alcock (1998) noted that different genes in birds may lead to differences in song characteristics by regulating the structure of the song organ, and non-genetic factors such as food and vocal learning experiences may also influence the evolution of the song system, leading to inconsistencies in bird song [31]. Existing studies have shown that environmental noise caused by urban development leads to changes in bird songs. The Oriental Magpie-Robin (Copsychus saularis) alters the maximum and minimum frequencies of its songs to adapt to urban environments [32]. The Vermilion Flycatcher (Pyrocephalus rubinus) tends to adjust the duration of its songs [33]. The Chinese Bulbul (Pycnonotus sinensis) has more complex songs [34]. In addition to adjusting frequency, duration, and complexity, birds also have behavioral adaptation strategies such as avoiding noisy periods of the day [35]. Urban noise not only reduces the propagation effectiveness of bird songs but also impairs the individual recognition function of birds. A recent study on the individual recognition ability of Black-capped Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) based on the female “fee-bee” song type illustrates this point: a low noise level of 40 dB SPL can reduce their ability to recognize individuals [36]. Most research targets species with lower song frequencies that overlap with urban low-frequency noise, while studies on the song change patterns of birds with higher song frequencies under the influence of urbanization are relatively lacking. This study set up six research sites to analyze the differences in bird song characteristics of Eurasian Nuthatch (sitta europaea) under the backdrop of urbanization, exploring the impact of urban homogenization on bird song. This study highlights the changes in call frequency and the duration of individual calls, and hoping to provide references for the study of bird songs.
The Eurasian Nuthatch belonging to the order Passeriformes is a small songbird that is not very shy of humans and has a diverse range of vocalizations, which can be divided into 11 syllable types, and the frequency ranges from about 2000–12,000 Hz. During Eurasian Nuthatch’s foraging, mutual chasing among individuals, parent birds returning to the nest to feed during the breeding season, and maintaining intraspecific communication during winter flocking, the song frequency is approximately between 6000 and 12,000 Hz [37]. Eurasian Nuthatch is widely distributed in China and contains five subspecies. There are two subspecies in Northeast China: Eurasian Nuthatch (sitta europaea asiatica) and Eurasian Nuthatch (sitta europaea amurensis); the subspecies we focused on in our study is Eurasian Nuthatch (sitta europaea amurensis). The Eurasian Nuthatch’s advantages in terms of morphology, coloration, habits, and distribution make it a good subject for research on differences in bird song, and there is relatively little research on the song of this bird in China. This study takes the Eurasian Nuthatch as the research object, aiming to explore the impact of urban development on the homogenization of bird song, providing a reference for the mechanism of the reduction in urban bird song diversity. The hypothesis is that urbanization will lead to a decrease in the diversity of bird songs. The expected results will provide a scientific basis for the protection of urban bird song diversity, so as to better leverage the role of song diversity in ecological environment monitoring and biodiversity assessment.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Study Design

This study includes 4 urban parks, 1 experimental forest farm, and 1 national nature reserve as the research sites (Figure 1 and Table 1). Harbin Sun Island Scenic Spot (hereafter, SISS) is the largest tourist attraction in Harbin City (45°41′–5°47′ N, 126°31′–126°36′ E), covering a total area of 8800 ha; Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University (hereafter, UFB) is the only forestry demonstration base in the city of Harbin (45°43′10″ N, 126°37′15″ E), covering a total area of 43.95 ha; Heilongjiang Forest and Botanical Garden (hereafter, FBG) is one of the most representative cold temperate botanical gardens in Northeast China (45°45′ N, 126°16′ E), covering an area of 136 ha; Bungalow Park (hereafter, BP) is the earliest urban ecological landscape park established after the founding of Harbin (45°35′37″ N, 126°37′50″ E), with a built-up area of 17.7999 ha; Maoer Mountain Experimental Forest Farm of Northeast Forestry University (hereafter, MMEFF) is an important base for experimental practice teaching, scientific research, and popular science education (45°20′–45°25′ N, 127°30′–127°34′ E), with a total area of 24,696 ha; and Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve (hereafter, LRNR) is another important base for experimental practice teaching, scientific research, and popular science education (47°6′49″–47°16′10″ N, 128°47′8″–128°57′19″ E), with a total area of 12,133 ha.

2.2. Methods and Data Analysis

We collected sound sample data of individual bird vocalizations from six study sites in a completely natural environment using the line transect method, with an acquisition date of June 2017 to December 2019 [38]. During the recording process, efforts were made to maintain a straight-line distance of 5–15 m from the target individual, ensuring audio quality without disturbing the Eurasian Nuthatch [39,40]. Samples were collected during the middle of each month, from 9:00 am to 12:00 pm under clear weather conditions, and multiple sound sample data were collected from the same vocalizing individual for subsequent indoor analysis and selection. All song sample data were collected using a TASCAM Linear PCM Recorder DR100MK III (TASCAM, Japan) with a Rode NTG4 directional microphone (Rode, Australia). The duration of song sample data is mainly 1–2 min, rarely more than 5 min, with unlimited time in special cases, and chamber cutting at a later stage. At the same time as the sound sample data collection, we recorded the sample data number, date, time, and location.
The song sample data were imported into the computer, initially screened for better quality song samples, and analyzed using Avisoft SASLab Lite 5.2.13 sound analysis software (Avisoft Bioacoustics, Germany). The parameters for the spectrogram are set as follows: FFT 256, Flat Top window, frame size 100%, and overlap 50%. Display parameters are used to zoom in on the frequency waveform, and cut-off frequencies are used for noise reduction in the spectrogram. Subsequently, measurements are taken for the number of syllables, the number of phonemes per syllable, start time, end time, duration of a single syllable, maximum frequency, minimum frequency, and main frequency. This information is compiled into an Excel spreadsheet for statistical analysis. Samples with a quantity less than 5 are ignored and not subjected to statistical analysis. All song parameter data in this experiment were analyzed using the statistical software R 4.3.3. Differences in song feature parameters were analyzed using the Mann–Whitney U test, the difference was considered insignificant when p > 0.05, significant when p ≤ 0.05, and highly significant when p < 0.01.

3. Results

3.1. Analysis of Homogenization Effects on Nuthatch Songs During Overwintering Period

A total of 115 song samples of the Eurasian Nuthatch during the overwintering period were collected from 5 research sites, with 8 samples from LRNR, 33 samples from BP, 24 samples from FBG, 33 samples from UFB, and 17 samples from SISS. And they were categorized based on phonetic composition into monosyllabic monophthongs, monosyllabic diphthongs, and monosyllabic triphthongs for analyzing the differences in song characteristics. The study results indicate that under the backdrop of urbanization, there is a phenomenon of homogenization on the song parameters of Eurasian Nuthatches during overwintering.
The Mann–Whitney U test was used to analyze the differences in song parameters of the Eurasian Nuthatch across five research sites, and the pairwise comparison results show that there are no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the minimum frequency, main frequency, and duration of monosyllabic monophthongs (NUFB = 33, NFBG = 24, NBP = 33, NSISS = 17, NLRNR = 8) across the five study sites; the maximum frequency significantly differs between SISS and UFB (p = 0.022), with no significant differences observed between the other study sites (Figure 2a). The maximum frequency, minimum frequency, main frequency, and duration of monosyllabic diphthongs (NUFB = 32, NFBG = 4, NBP = 10, NSISS = 10, NLRNR = 6) show no significant differences (p > 0.05) among the five study sites (Figure 2b). The minimum frequency and duration of monosyllabic triphthongs (NUFB = 8, NFBG = 16, NBP = 10, NSISS = 7, NLRNR = 6) show no significant differences (p > 0.05) among the five study sites; the main frequency shows some differences between FBG and SISS (p = 0.036), BP (p = 0.030), LRNR (p = 0.016); the maximum frequency significantly differs between FBG and LRNR (p = 0.039), with no significant differences (p > 0.05) between other study sites (Figure 2c). The Eurasian Nuthatch’s song shows some differences in the main frequency of monosyllabic triphthongs during overwintering period, while other parameters are almost homogeneous.

3.2. Analysis of Homogenization Effects on Nuthatch Songs During Breeding Season

A total of 38 song samples of Eurasian Nuthatch were collected from 2 study sites during the breeding period, and they were categorized into monosyllabic triphthongs and monosyllabic tetrameter based on phoneme composition for analyzing the differences in song characteristics. The study results indicate that under the backdrop of urbanization, the Eurasian Nuthatch’s songs are more diverse, with only the main frequency showing a significant phenomenon of homogenizing during the breeding period.
The Mann–Whitney U test was used to analyze the differences in song parameters of the Eurasian Nuthatch across two research sites, and the comparison of Eurasian Nuthatch’s song characteristic parameters shows that there is no significant difference in the maximum frequency and main frequency of monosyllabic triphthongs (NUFB = 10, NMMEFF = 12) between the two study sites (p > 0.05); however, the differences in the minimum frequency and duration are significant (p = 0.040, p = 0.002) (Figure 3a). The main frequency of monosyllabic tetrameter (NUFB = 8, NMMEFF = 8) shows no significant difference between the two study sites (p > 0.05); however, significant differences are observed in the maximum frequency, minimum frequency, and duration (p = 0.038, p = 0.001, p = 0.002) (Figure 3b). This indicates that there is a phenomenon of homogenizing on the main frequency of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s songs during the breeding period.

4. Discussion

The fact that urbanization causes changes in bird song characteristics was confirmed by many studies [2,41,42]. This study found that the song responses of Eurasian Nuthatch to urbanization are inconsistent across different life history stages. During overwintering, there are no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the maximum frequency, minimum frequency, and duration of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s songs across different urban parks (SSIS, UFB, FBG, BP), and the main frequency of the Eurasian Nuthatch distributed in FBG shows certain differences compared to other study sites; this indicates that urbanization development leads to a reduction in the diversity of Eurasian Nuthatch’s songs during the overwintering period, with more similar song characteristic parameters. The research by Laioloa P. also found that habitat fragmentation has led to a cultural bottleneck in the song repertoire of Dupont’s lark (Chersophilus duponti), resulting in a significant reduction in the variety of songs among individuals and populations [43,44]. It is likely that human activities and urban development lead to increasingly severe habitat fragmentation for wildlife, with the fragmented living environments causing birds to form different groups. These newly emerged populations, often founded by a small number of individuals, can trace their vocal traits back to the original creators [45]. The establishment of new populations is typically from young individuals within larger species, which, compared to adult conspecifics, have a more limited repertoire; hence, their calls may be more monotonous [46], thereby leading the gradual homogenization of urban bird song diversity and a decrease in song diversity. Comparing the habitat types of the two research sites (LRNR, UFB) shows they are highly similar, with both being mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests [47,48]. Similar living environments may lead to the song characteristics of the Eurasian Nuthatch exhibiting certain common features. This is similar to the research results of Li DF et al., where the song differences in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) living in the same environment are not significant [49].
The homogenization phenomenon of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s songs is not significant during the breeding period. There are varying degrees of differences in the maximum frequency, minimum frequency, and duration of the songs (p < 0.05). Birds emit different songs during different life history stages, and their behaviors are markedly different, generally stable, and not prone to change during the breeding period [50,51,52,53]. However, there are no significant differences in the main frequency of bird songs. It may be the homogenized habitats and the lack of strict geographical isolation, that may lead to communication and even reproductive mating between species. Therefore, the changes in the main frequency of the Eurasian Nuthatch’s songs are not very prominent during the breeding period, and there is a phenomenon of homogenization.
For birds that rely on songs as an important means of communication, the reduction in song diversity undoubtedly poses a significant challenge to their survival and reproduction. Bird songs have functions such as information transmission, and birds emit songs with different characteristics during courtship, foraging, defense, flight, and nesting [1,37]. Bird songs can also be used to determine the kinship relationships between different populations of the same species and between different individuals [54]. The diversity of bird song can reflect the diversity of species to some extent [55]. Birds alter their acoustic communication signals in response to urban development, but the consequences of these changes are not yet clear [56]. The homogenization of bird songs may significantly impact individual recognition, mate choice, territory defense, population density, community structure, and ecological functions, thereby affecting the health of ecosystems and the long-term survival of birds. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct research on the impact of urbanization on bird song diversity.

5. Conclusions

Urbanization has notable effects on the Eurasian Nuthatch song characteristics of different life history stages. During the wintering period, urban development results in reduced bird song diversity and a distinct homogenization effect, suggesting limited versatility in bird song changes due to urbanization. Notably, in the breeding period, bird song diversity increases, indicating adaptive strategies aimed at enhancing reproductive success. However, the main frequency of homogenization persists, reflecting adaptability to urban environments and improving reproduction. These findings show that urbanization impacts bird song variability across ecological and seasonal contexts. The study emphasizes the complex interaction between urban environments and wildlife communication systems, particularly avian communication, to overcome habitat fragmentation, noise pollution, and ecological changes. The reduced bird song diversity and homogenization may affect bird communication, population dynamics, and mate attraction in urbanized areas. These changes highlight the broader ecological impacts of urbanization on birds’ biodiversity and, indirectly, ecosystem functions.
These findings warn urban strategic planners and conservationists against incorporating bird diversity considerations into urbanization. Measures such as preserving natural habitats, sustaining diverse urban green spaces, and mitigating noise pollution can help manage urbanization’s adverse effects on bird populations. Also, creating urban environments with different aspects may support improving bird song diversity in urban wildlife.
Future research should expand the scope to investigate urban bird species in regions and urbanization rates to clarify further exploring urbanization’s global impacts on their diversity and behavior across cities. This study contributes to developing strategies that promote the coexistence of urban development and wildlife conservation by combining ecological stability with urban growth.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.S., M.S., P.S., H.Z. and Q.W.; methodology, X.S., P.S. and Q.W.; software, X.S., M.S. and P.S.; validation, Q.W. and H.Z.; formal analysis, X.S., P.S. and M.S.K.; investigation, X.S., M.S., P.S. and Q.W.; resources M.S., X.S. and P.S.; data curation, X.S., M.S., Q.W. and P.S.; writing—original draft, X.S.; writing—review and editing, Q.W., M.S., X.S., H.Z. and M.S.K.; visualization, X.S., M.S. and Q.W.; supervision, Q.W. and J.Z.; project administration, Q.W. and J.Z.; funding acquisition, Q.W. and H.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The current study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number, 32271557), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant number, 2023YFF1305000), and the Special Survey Project on Bird Resources in Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We are very thankful to the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the national key research and development program of China, and the Special Survey Project on Bird Resources in Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve for funding and supporting. We are also very grateful for the comments and suggestions made by the anonymous reviewers.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Diversity 17 00103 g001
Figure 1. Location of study area. Note: SISS shows Harbin Sun Island Scenic Spot, UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, FBG shows Heilongjiang Forest and Botanical Garden, BP shows Bungalow Park, LRNR shows Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve, and MMEFF shows Maoer Mountain Experimental Forest Farm of Northeast Forestry University.
Figure 1. Location of study area. Note: SISS shows Harbin Sun Island Scenic Spot, UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, FBG shows Heilongjiang Forest and Botanical Garden, BP shows Bungalow Park, LRNR shows Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve, and MMEFF shows Maoer Mountain Experimental Forest Farm of Northeast Forestry University.
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Figure 2. Comparison of Eurasian Nuthatch song parameters in different locations under urbanization ((a) monosyllabic monophthongs; (b) monosyllabic diphthongs; (c) monosyllabic diphthongs). Note: SISS shows Harbin Sun Island Scenic Spot, UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, FBG shows Heilongjiang Forest and Botanical Garden, BP shows Bungalow Park, and LRNR shows Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve (* p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Comparison of Eurasian Nuthatch song parameters in different locations under urbanization ((a) monosyllabic monophthongs; (b) monosyllabic diphthongs; (c) monosyllabic diphthongs). Note: SISS shows Harbin Sun Island Scenic Spot, UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, FBG shows Heilongjiang Forest and Botanical Garden, BP shows Bungalow Park, and LRNR shows Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve (* p < 0.05).
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Figure 3. Comparison of Eurasian Nuthatch song parameters in different locations under urbanization ((a) monosyllabic diphthongs; (b) monosyllabic tetrameter). Note: UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, and MMEFF shows Maoer Mountain Experimental Forest Farm of Northeast Forestry University. (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Figure 3. Comparison of Eurasian Nuthatch song parameters in different locations under urbanization ((a) monosyllabic diphthongs; (b) monosyllabic tetrameter). Note: UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, and MMEFF shows Maoer Mountain Experimental Forest Farm of Northeast Forestry University. (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
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Table 1. Study area urbanization parameters.
Table 1. Study area urbanization parameters.
Study AreaNoise (dB)Building IndexHabitat
SISS55.69 ± 6.80.48Urban park
UFB52.86 ± 5.60.80Urban park
FBG48.96 ± 3.90.65Urban park
BP43.58 ± 4.60.80Urban park
MMEFF38.76 ± 4.10Forestry
LRNR36.66 ± 5.80Nature reserve
Note: SISS shows Harbin Sun Island Scenic Spot, UFB shows Urban Forestry Demonstration Base of Northeast Forestry University, FBG shows Heilongjiang Forest and Botanical Garden, BP shows Bungalow Park, LRNR shows Heilongjiang Liang River National Nature Reserve, and MMEFF shows Maoer Mountain Experimental Forest Farm of Northeast Forestry University.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Sun, X.; Suliman, M.; Wu, Q.; Shaliwa, P.; Zou, H.; Zhu, J.; Sadiq Khan, M. Urbanization Influences on the Song Diversity of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Northeast China. Diversity 2025, 17, 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020103

AMA Style

Sun X, Suliman M, Wu Q, Shaliwa P, Zou H, Zhu J, Sadiq Khan M. Urbanization Influences on the Song Diversity of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Northeast China. Diversity. 2025; 17(2):103. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020103

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sun, Xueying, Muhammad Suliman, Qingming Wu, Paiyizulamu Shaliwa, Hongfei Zou, Jingli Zhu, and Muhammad Sadiq Khan. 2025. "Urbanization Influences on the Song Diversity of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Northeast China" Diversity 17, no. 2: 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020103

APA Style

Sun, X., Suliman, M., Wu, Q., Shaliwa, P., Zou, H., Zhu, J., & Sadiq Khan, M. (2025). Urbanization Influences on the Song Diversity of the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Northeast China. Diversity, 17(2), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020103

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