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Volume 21
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Sensors, Volume 21, Issue 10 (May-2 2021) – 267 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The evolution of optical instrumentation—in particular, large-scale ring laser sensors, such as G-ring and ROMY—and their geoscientific application has contributed significantly to the study of new observables in seismology. As a heterolithic structure, ROMY's ring laser components are subject to optical frequency drifts. Sagnac interferometers at this scale require new considerations and approaches concerning data acquisition, processing and quality assessment compared to conventional, mechanical instrumentation. We present an automated approach to assess the data quality and the performance of a ring laser that is directly based on characteristics of the interferometric Sagnac signal. The developed scheme is applied to ROMY data to detect compromised operation states and assign quality flags. View this paper
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12 pages, 967 KiB  
Article
Wrist-Based Photoplethysmography Assessment of Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability: Validation of WHOOP
by Clint R. Bellenger, Dean J. Miller, Shona L. Halson, Gregory D. Roach and Charli Sargent
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3571; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103571 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 10529 | Correction
Abstract
Heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV) infer readiness to perform exercise in athletic populations. Technological advancements have facilitated HR and HRV quantification via photoplethysmography (PPG). This study evaluated the validity of WHOOP’s PPG-derived HR and HRV against electrocardiogram-derived (ECG) measures. HR and [...] Read more.
Heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV) infer readiness to perform exercise in athletic populations. Technological advancements have facilitated HR and HRV quantification via photoplethysmography (PPG). This study evaluated the validity of WHOOP’s PPG-derived HR and HRV against electrocardiogram-derived (ECG) measures. HR and HRV were assessed via WHOOP 2.0 and ECG over 15 opportunities during October–December 2018. WHOOP-derived pulse-to-pulse (PP) intervals were edited with WHOOP’s proprietary filter, in addition to various filter strengths via Kubios HRV software. HR and HRV (Ln RMSSD) were quantified for each filter strength. Agreement was assessed via bias and limits of agreement (LOA), and contextualised using smallest worthwhile change (SWC) and coefficient of variation (CV). Regardless of filter strength, bias (≤0.39 ± 0.38%) and LOA (≤1.56%) in HR were lower than the CV (10–11%) and SWC (5–5.5%) for this parameter. For Ln RMSSD, bias (1.66 ± 1.80%) and LOA (±5.93%) were lowest for a 200 ms filter and WHOOP’s proprietary filter, which approached or exceeded the CV (3–13%) and SWC (1.5–6.5%) for this parameter. Acceptable agreement was found between WHOOP- and ECG-derived HR. Bias and LOA in Ln RMSSD approached or exceeded the SWC/CV for this variable and should be interpreted against its own level of bias precision. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartphones and Wearable Sensors for Monitoring Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability)
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14 pages, 21307 KiB  
Article
A Mobile Device for Monitoring the Biological Purity of Air and Liquid Samples
by Tomasz Sikora, Karolina Morawska and Wiesław Lisowski
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3570; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103570 - 20 May 2021
Viewed by 2199
Abstract
A detector for identifying potential bacterial hazards in the air was designed and created in the Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry in the framework of the project FLORABO. The presence of fungi and bacteria in the air can affect the health of [...] Read more.
A detector for identifying potential bacterial hazards in the air was designed and created in the Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry in the framework of the project FLORABO. The presence of fungi and bacteria in the air can affect the health of people in a given room. The need to control the amount of microorganisms, both in terms of quantity and quality, applies to both hospitals and offices. The device is based on the fluorescence spectroscopy analysis of the sample and then these results were compared to the resulting spectrogram database, which includes the standard curves obtained in the laboratory for selected bacteria. The measurements provide information about the presence, the type, and the approximate concentration of bacteria in the sample. The spectra were collected at different excitation wavelengths, and the waveforms are specific for each of the strains. It also takes under analysis the signal intensities of the different spectra (not only shape a maximum of the peak) so that the concentration of bacteria in the sample being tested can be determined. The device was tested in the laboratory with concentrations ranging from 10 to 108 cells/mL. Additionally, the detector can distinguish between the vegetative forms of spores of the bacteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biosensors for Food and Environmental Monitoring: A Themed Issue Dedicated to Professor Jean-Louis Marty)
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24 pages, 6663 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Single-Shot MultiBox Detector and YOLO Deep Learning Models for the Detection of Tomatoes in a Greenhouse
by Sandro Augusto Magalhães, Luís Castro, Germano Moreira, Filipe Neves dos Santos, Mário Cunha, Jorge Dias and António Paulo Moreira
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3569; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103569 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 105 | Viewed by 12274
Abstract
The development of robotic solutions for agriculture requires advanced perception capabilities that can work reliably in any crop stage. For example, to automatise the tomato harvesting process in greenhouses, the visual perception system needs to detect the tomato in any life cycle stage [...] Read more.
The development of robotic solutions for agriculture requires advanced perception capabilities that can work reliably in any crop stage. For example, to automatise the tomato harvesting process in greenhouses, the visual perception system needs to detect the tomato in any life cycle stage (flower to the ripe tomato). The state-of-the-art for visual tomato detection focuses mainly on ripe tomato, which has a distinctive colour from the background. This paper contributes with an annotated visual dataset of green and reddish tomatoes. This kind of dataset is uncommon and not available for research purposes. This will enable further developments in edge artificial intelligence for in situ and in real-time visual tomato detection required for the development of harvesting robots. Considering this dataset, five deep learning models were selected, trained and benchmarked to detect green and reddish tomatoes grown in greenhouses. Considering our robotic platform specifications, only the Single-Shot MultiBox Detector (SSD) and YOLO architectures were considered. The results proved that the system can detect green and reddish tomatoes, even those occluded by leaves. SSD MobileNet v2 had the best performance when compared against SSD Inception v2, SSD ResNet 50, SSD ResNet 101 and YOLOv4 Tiny, reaching an F1-score of 66.15%, an mAP of 51.46% and an inference time of 16.44ms with the NVIDIA Turing Architecture platform, an NVIDIA Tesla T4, with 12 GB. YOLOv4 Tiny also had impressive results, mainly concerning inferring times of about 5 ms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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20 pages, 6613 KiB  
Article
SQM-LRU: A Harmony Dual-Queue Management Algorithm to Control Non-Responsive LTF Flow and Achieve Service Differentiation
by Penghui Li, Xianliang Jiang, Jiahua Zhu and Guang Jin
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3568; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103568 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2622
Abstract
The increase in network applications diversity and different service quality requirements lead to service differentiation, making it more important than ever. In Wide Area Network (WAN), the non-responsive Long-Term Fast (LTF) flows are the main contributors to network congestion. Therefore, detecting and suppressing [...] Read more.
The increase in network applications diversity and different service quality requirements lead to service differentiation, making it more important than ever. In Wide Area Network (WAN), the non-responsive Long-Term Fast (LTF) flows are the main contributors to network congestion. Therefore, detecting and suppressing non-responsive LTF flows represent one of the key points for providing data transmission with controllable delay and service differentiation. However, the existing single-queue management algorithms are designed to serve only a small number of applications with similar requirements (low latency, high throughput, etc.). The lack of mechanisms to distinguish different traffic makes it difficult to implement differentiated services. This paper proposes an active queue management scheme, namely, SQM-LRU, which realizes service differentiation based on Shadow Queue (SQ) and improved Least-Recently-Used (LRU) strategy. The algorithm consists of three essential components: First, the flow detection module is based on the SQ and improved LRU. This module is used to detect non-responsive LTF flows. Second, different flows will be put into corresponding high or low priority sub-queues depending on the flow detection results. Third, the dual-queue adopts CoDel and RED, respectively, to manage packets. SQM-LRU intends to satisfy the stringent delay requirements of responsive flow while maximizing the throughput of non-responsive LTF flow. Our simulation results show that SQM-LRU outperforms traditional solutions with significant improvement in flow detection and reduces the delay, jitter, and Flow Completion Time (FCT) of responsive flow. As a result, it reduced the FCT by up to 50% and attained 95% of the link utilization. Additionally, the low overhead and the operations incur O(1) cost per packet, making it practical for the real network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Communications)
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9 pages, 2071 KiB  
Communication
An SPRi Biosensor for Determination of the Ovarian Cancer Marker HE4 in Human Plasma
by Beata Szymanska, Zenon Lukaszewski, Beata Zelazowska-Rutkowska, Kinga Hermanowicz-Szamatowicz and Ewa Gorodkiewicz
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3567; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103567 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3347
Abstract
Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is an ovarian cancer marker. Various cut-off values of the marker in blood are recommended, depending on the method used for its determination. An alternative biosensor for HE4 determination in blood plasma has been developed. It consists of [...] Read more.
Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is an ovarian cancer marker. Various cut-off values of the marker in blood are recommended, depending on the method used for its determination. An alternative biosensor for HE4 determination in blood plasma has been developed. It consists of rabbit polyclonal antibody against HE4, covalently attached to a gold chip via cysteamine linker. The biosensor is used with the non-fluidic array SPRi technique. The linear range of the analytical signal response was found to be 2–120 pM, and the biosensor can be used for the determination of the HE4 marker in the plasma of both healthy subjects and ovarian cancer patients after suitable dilution with a PBS buffer. Precision (6–10%) and recovery (101.8–103.5%) were found to be acceptable, and the LOD was equal to 2 pM. The biosensor was validated by the parallel determination of a series of plasma samples from ovarian cancer patients using the Elecsys HE4 test and the developed biosensor, with a good agreement of the results (a Pearson coefficient of 0.989). An example of the diagnostic application of the developed biosensor is given—the influence of ovarian tumor resection on the level of HE4 in blood serum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensors for Medical Diagnosis)
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19 pages, 3913 KiB  
Article
Validation of Rayleigh Wave Theoretical Formulation with Single-Station Rotational Records of Mine Tremors in Lower Silesian Copper Basin
by Witold Pytel, Krzysztof Fuławka, Piotr Mertuszka and Bogumiła Pałac-Walko
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3566; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103566 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2654
Abstract
The classical Rayleigh surface rotational wave in terms of its theoretical notation and, resulting from this, properties associated with the induced seismic phenomena in mines are presented. This kind of seismic wave was analysed in-depth from the point of view of the parameters [...] Read more.
The classical Rayleigh surface rotational wave in terms of its theoretical notation and, resulting from this, properties associated with the induced seismic phenomena in mines are presented. This kind of seismic wave was analysed in-depth from the point of view of the parameters governing the form of its mathematical notation based on the similarity to the records obtained during the induced seismicity in near-field 6-DoF monitoring. Furthermore, conducted field measurements made it possible to relate the amount of the emitted seismic energy to the expected highest amplitude of rotational vibrations in the entire field of their impact on the rock mass. As a result, this made it possible to impose the completely defined R wave to the numerical models of given objects; the safety level, when subjected to the dynamic load induced by the rotational wave, would be an objective of the performed analyses. The conducted preliminary analyses were prepared for a plane strain state, for which the values of seismic rotations were evaluated concerning the energy and the distance of the seismic event’s source. As a result of the performed simulations, it was found that the results of the calculations matched with a satisfying degree with the field seismic measurements of the rotational ground motion induced by propagating the seismic wave. Such a verified analytical description of the theoretical formulas can be the basis for the implementation of R-wave characteristics into seismic codes and numerical analyses of object stability in the Lower Silesian Copper Basin region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rotation Rate Sensors and Their Applications)
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12 pages, 2297 KiB  
Communication
Sensitivity and Accuracy of Dielectric Measurements of Liquids Significantly Improved by Coupled Capacitive-Dependent Quartz Crystals
by Vojko Matko and Miro Milanovič
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3565; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103565 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2526
Abstract
A method to measure complex permittivity of liquids by using a capacitive-dependent quartz crystal and two quartz oscillators for temperature compensation in the frequency range of 4–10 MHz is described. Complex permittivity can be detected with high precision and sensitivity through a small [...] Read more.
A method to measure complex permittivity of liquids by using a capacitive-dependent quartz crystal and two quartz oscillators for temperature compensation in the frequency range of 4–10 MHz is described. Complex permittivity can be detected with high precision and sensitivity through a small change of capacitance and conductance, because a change in reactance in series with the quartz crystal impacts its resonant oscillation frequency. The temperature compensation in the range below 0.1 ppm is achieved by using two quartz oscillators that are made of elements of the same quality and have a temperature–frequency pair of quartz crystals. With the help of a reference oscillator, measurements of frequency are more accurate, because the frequency difference is in the kHz region, which also enables further processing of the signal by a microcontroller. With a proper calibration, the accuracy of this highly sensitive quartz crystal method is ±0.05%, which is an order of magnitude lower than that for a capacitance method without quartz crystals. The improved accuracy is of significant importance in the field of power engineering to monitor coolants and lubricants, oils, liquid fuels and other liquids, the dielectric properties of which are crucial for proper operation of devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Dielectric Sensing-Based Systems and Applications)
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16 pages, 11106 KiB  
Article
A Capacitive 3-Axis MEMS Accelerometer for Medipost: A Portable System Dedicated to Monitoring Imbalance Disorders
by Michał Szermer, Piotr Zając, Piotr Amrozik, Cezary Maj, Mariusz Jankowski, Grzegorz Jabłoński, Rafał Kiełbik, Jacek Nazdrowicz, Małgorzata Napieralska and Bartosz Sakowicz
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103564 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6606
Abstract
The constant development and miniaturization of MEMS sensors invariably provides new possibilities for their use in health-related and medical applications. The application of MEMS devices in posturographic systems allows faster diagnosis and significantly facilitates the work of medical staff. MEMS accelerometers constitute a [...] Read more.
The constant development and miniaturization of MEMS sensors invariably provides new possibilities for their use in health-related and medical applications. The application of MEMS devices in posturographic systems allows faster diagnosis and significantly facilitates the work of medical staff. MEMS accelerometers constitute a vital part of such systems, particularly those intended for monitoring patients with imbalance disorders. The correct design of such sensors is crucial for gathering data about patient movement and ensuring the good overall performance of the entire system. This paper presents the design and measurements of a three-axis accelerometer dedicated for use in a device which tracks patient movement. Its main focus is the characterization of the sensor, comparing different designs and evaluating the impact of the packaging and readout circuit integration on sensor operation. Extensive testing and measurements confirm that the designed accelerometer works correctly and allows identifying the best design in terms of sensitivity/stability. Moreover, the response of the proposed sensor as a function of the applied acceleration demonstrates very good linearity only if the readout circuit is integrated in the same package as the MEMS sensor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accelerometer and Its Application in Health Research)
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9 pages, 24324 KiB  
Communication
Ultra-Highly Sensitive Hydrogen Chloride Detection Based on Quartz-Enhanced Photothermal Spectroscopy
by Yufei Ma, Ziting Lang, Ying He, Shunda Qiao and Yu Li
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3563; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103563 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3146
Abstract
Combining the merits of non-contact measurement and high sensitivity, the quartz-enhanced photothermal spectroscopy (QEPTS) technique is suitable for measuring acid gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCl). In this invited paper, we report, for the first time, on an ultra-highly sensitive HCl sensor based [...] Read more.
Combining the merits of non-contact measurement and high sensitivity, the quartz-enhanced photothermal spectroscopy (QEPTS) technique is suitable for measuring acid gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCl). In this invited paper, we report, for the first time, on an ultra-highly sensitive HCl sensor based on the QEPTS technique. A continuous wave, distributed feedback (CW-DFB) fiber-coupled diode laser with emission wavelength of 1.74 µm was used as the excitation source. A certified mixture of 500 ppm HCl:N2 was adapted as the analyte. Wavelength modulation spectroscopy was used to simplify the data processing. The wavelength modulation depth was optimized. The relationships between the second harmonic (2f) amplitude of HCl-QEPTS signal and the laser power as well as HCl concentration were investigated. An Allan variance analysis was performed to prove that this sensor had good stability and high sensitivity. The proposed HCl-QEPTS sensor can achieve a minimum detection limit (MDL) of ~17 parts per billion (ppb) with an integration time of 130 s. Further improvement of such an HCl-QEPTS sensor performance was proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Optical Sensors Technology in China)
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24 pages, 7320 KiB  
Article
Critical Image Identification via Incident-Type Definition Using Smartphone Data during an Emergency: A Case Study of the 2020 Heavy Rainfall Event in Korea
by Yoonjo Choi, Namhun Kim, Seunghwan Hong, Junsu Bae, Ilsuk Park and Hong-Gyoo Sohn
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3562; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103562 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3181
Abstract
In unpredictable disaster scenarios, it is important to recognize the situation promptly and take appropriate response actions. This study proposes a cloud computing-based data collection, processing, and analysis process that employs a crowd-sensing application. Clustering algorithms are used to define the major damage [...] Read more.
In unpredictable disaster scenarios, it is important to recognize the situation promptly and take appropriate response actions. This study proposes a cloud computing-based data collection, processing, and analysis process that employs a crowd-sensing application. Clustering algorithms are used to define the major damage types, and hotspot analysis is applied to effectively filter critical data from crowdsourced data. To verify the utility of the proposed process, it is applied to Icheon-si and Anseong-si, both in Gyeonggi-do, which were affected by heavy rainfall in 2020. The results show that the types of incident at the damaged site were effectively detected, and images reflecting the damage situation could be classified using the application of the geospatial analysis technique. For 5 August 2020, which was close to the date of the event, the images were classified with a precision of 100% at a threshold of 0.4. For 24–25 August 2020, the image classification precision exceeded 95% at a threshold of 0.5, except for the mudslide mudflow in the Yul area. The location distribution of the classified images showed a distribution similar to that of damaged regions in unmanned aerial vehicle images. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Information Extraction for Situation Awareness During Emergency Using Multi-Sensor Imagery)
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17 pages, 996 KiB  
Review
Current Trends and Challenges in Pediatric Access to Sensorless and Sensor-Based Upper Limb Exoskeletons
by Guillaume Gaudet, Maxime Raison and Sofiane Achiche
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3561; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103561 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4263
Abstract
Sensorless and sensor-based upper limb exoskeletons that enhance or support daily motor function are limited for children. This review presents the different needs in pediatrics and the latest trends when developing an upper limb exoskeleton and discusses future prospects to improve accessibility. First, [...] Read more.
Sensorless and sensor-based upper limb exoskeletons that enhance or support daily motor function are limited for children. This review presents the different needs in pediatrics and the latest trends when developing an upper limb exoskeleton and discusses future prospects to improve accessibility. First, the principal diagnoses in pediatrics and their respective challenge are presented. A total of 14 upper limb exoskeletons aimed for pediatric use were identified in the literature. The exoskeletons were then classified as sensorless or sensor-based, and categorized with respect to the application domain, the motorization solution, the targeted population(s), and the supported movement(s). The relative absence of upper limb exoskeleton in pediatrics is mainly due to the additional complexity required in order to adapt to children’s growth and answer their specific needs and usage. This review highlights that research should focus on sensor-based exoskeletons, which would benefit the majority of children by allowing easier adjustment to the children’s needs. Sensor-based exoskeletons are often the best solution for children to improve their participation in activities of daily living and limit cognitive, social, and motor impairments during their development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integration of Advanced Sensors in Assistive Robotic Technology)
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20 pages, 7000 KiB  
Article
An Intelligent Self-Service Vending System for Smart Retail
by Kun Xia, Hongliang Fan, Jianguang Huang, Hanyu Wang, Junxue Ren, Qin Jian and Dafang Wei
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3560; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103560 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6762
Abstract
The traditional weighing and selling process of non-barcode items requires manual service, which not only consumes manpower and material resources but is also more prone to errors or omissions of data. This paper proposes an intelligent self-service vending system embedded with a single [...] Read more.
The traditional weighing and selling process of non-barcode items requires manual service, which not only consumes manpower and material resources but is also more prone to errors or omissions of data. This paper proposes an intelligent self-service vending system embedded with a single camera to detect multiple products in real-time performance without any labels, and the system realizes the integration of weighing, identification, and online settlement in the process of non-barcode items. The system includes a self-service vending device and a multi-device data management platform. The flexible configuration of the structure gives the system the possibility of identifying fruits from multiple angles. The height of the system can be adjusted to provide self-service for people of different heights; then, deep learning skill is applied implementing product detection, and real-time multi-object detection technology is utilized in the image-based checkout system. In addition, on the multi-device data management platform, the information docking between embedded devices, WeChat applets, Alipay, and the database platform can be implemented. We conducted experiments to verify the accuracy of the measurement. The experimental results demonstrate that the correlation coefficient R2 between the measured value of the weight and the actual value is 0.99, and the accuracy of non-barcode item prediction is 93.73%. In Yangpu District, Shanghai, a comprehensive application scenario experiment was also conducted, proving that our system can effectively deal with the challenges of various sales situations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Internet of Things)
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17 pages, 3686 KiB  
Article
IoT Sensing for Reality-Enhanced Serious Games, a Fuel-Efficient Drive Use Case
by Rana Massoud, Riccardo Berta, Stefan Poslad, Alessandro De Gloria and Francesco Bellotti
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3559; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103559 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3204
Abstract
Internet of Things technologies are spurring new types of instructional games, namely reality-enhanced serious games (RESGs), that support training directly in the field. This paper investigates a key feature of RESGs, i.e., user performance evaluation using real data, and studies an application of [...] Read more.
Internet of Things technologies are spurring new types of instructional games, namely reality-enhanced serious games (RESGs), that support training directly in the field. This paper investigates a key feature of RESGs, i.e., user performance evaluation using real data, and studies an application of RESGs for promoting fuel-efficient driving, using fuel consumption as an indicator of driver performance. In particular, we propose a reference model for supporting a novel smart sensing dataflow involving the combination of two modules, based on machine learning, to be employed in RESGs in parallel and in real-time. The first module concerns quantitative performance assessment, while the second one targets verbal recommendation. For the assessment module, we compared the performance of three well-established machine learning algorithms: support vector regression, random forest and artificial neural networks. The experiments show that random forest achieves a slightly better performance assessment correlation than the others but requires a higher inference time. The instant recommendation module, implemented using fuzzy logic, triggers advice when inefficient driving patterns are detected. The dataflow has been tested with data from the enviroCar public dataset, exploiting on board diagnostic II (OBD II) standard vehicular interface information. The data covers various driving environments and vehicle models, which makes the system robust for real-world conditions. The results show the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed approach, attaining a high estimation correlation (R2 = 0.99, with random forest) and punctual verbal feedback to the driver. An important word of caution concerns users’ privacy, as the modules rely on sensitive personal data, and provide information that by no means should be misused. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Internet of Things)
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18 pages, 1037 KiB  
Article
Seeing through Events: Real-Time Moving Object Sonification for Visually Impaired People Using Event-Based Camera
by Zihao Ji, Weijian Hu, Ze Wang, Kailun Yang and Kaiwei Wang
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103558 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3588
Abstract
Scene sonification is a powerful technique to help Visually Impaired People (VIP) understand their surroundings. Existing methods usually perform sonification on the entire images of the surrounding scene acquired by a standard camera or on the priori static obstacles acquired by image processing [...] Read more.
Scene sonification is a powerful technique to help Visually Impaired People (VIP) understand their surroundings. Existing methods usually perform sonification on the entire images of the surrounding scene acquired by a standard camera or on the priori static obstacles acquired by image processing algorithms on the RGB image of the surrounding scene. However, if all the information in the scene are delivered to VIP simultaneously, it will cause information redundancy. In fact, biological vision is more sensitive to moving objects in the scene than static objects, which is also the original intention of the event-based camera. In this paper, we propose a real-time sonification framework to help VIP understand the moving objects in the scene. First, we capture the events in the scene using an event-based camera and cluster them into multiple moving objects without relying on any prior knowledge. Then, sonification based on MIDI is enabled on these objects synchronously. Finally, we conduct comprehensive experiments on the scene video with sonification audio attended by 20 VIP and 20 Sighted People (SP). The results show that our method allows both participants to clearly distinguish the number, size, motion speed, and motion trajectories of multiple objects. The results show that our method is more comfortable to hear than existing methods in terms of aesthetics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Technological Ecosystems for eHealth)
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19 pages, 2021 KiB  
Article
An Integrated Mission Planning Framework for Sensor Allocation and Path Planning of Heterogeneous Multi-UAV Systems
by Hongxing Zheng and Jinpeng Yuan
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3557; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103557 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3041
Abstract
Mission planning is the guidance for a UAV team to perform missions, which plays the most critical role in military and civil applications. For complex tasks, it requires heterogeneous cooperative multi-UAVs to satisfy several mission requirements. Meanwhile, airborne sensor allocation and path planning [...] Read more.
Mission planning is the guidance for a UAV team to perform missions, which plays the most critical role in military and civil applications. For complex tasks, it requires heterogeneous cooperative multi-UAVs to satisfy several mission requirements. Meanwhile, airborne sensor allocation and path planning are the critical components of heterogeneous multi-UAVs system mission planning problems, which affect the mission profit to a large extent. This paper establishes the mathematical model for the integrated sensor allocation and path planning problem to maximize the total task profit and minimize travel costs, simultaneously. We present an integrated mission planning framework based on a two-level adaptive variable neighborhood search algorithm to address the coupled problem. The first-level is devoted to planning a reasonable airborne sensor allocation plan, and the second-level aims to optimize the path of the heterogeneous multi-UAVs system. To improve the mission planning framework’s efficiency, an adaptive mechanism is presented to guide the search direction intelligently during the iterative process. Simulation results show that the effectiveness of the proposed framework. Compared to the conventional methods, the better performance of planning results is achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perception-Planning Fusion Technology in Robotics)
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20 pages, 994 KiB  
Article
Granular Data Access Control with a Patient-Centric Policy Update for Healthcare
by Fawad Khan, Saad Khan, Shahzaib Tahir, Jawad Ahmad, Hasan Tahir and Syed Aziz Shah
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3556; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103556 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3137
Abstract
Healthcare is a multi-actor environment that requires independent actors to have a different view of the same data, hence leading to different access rights. Ciphertext Policy-Attribute-based Encryption (CP-ABE) provides a one-to-many access control mechanism by defining an attribute’s policy over ciphertext. Although, all [...] Read more.
Healthcare is a multi-actor environment that requires independent actors to have a different view of the same data, hence leading to different access rights. Ciphertext Policy-Attribute-based Encryption (CP-ABE) provides a one-to-many access control mechanism by defining an attribute’s policy over ciphertext. Although, all users satisfying the policy are given access to the same data, this limits its usage in the provision of hierarchical access control and in situations where different users/actors need to have granular access of the data. Moreover, most of the existing CP-ABE schemes either provide static access control or in certain cases the policy update is computationally intensive involving all non-revoked users to actively participate. Aiming to tackle both the challenges, this paper proposes a patient-centric multi message CP-ABE scheme with efficient policy update. Firstly, a general overview of the system architecture implementing the proposed access control mechanism is presented. Thereafter, for enforcing access control a concrete cryptographic construction is proposed and implemented/tested over the physiological data gathered from a healthcare sensor: shimmer sensor. The experiment results reveal that the proposed construction has constant computational cost in both encryption and decryption operations and generates constant size ciphertext for both the original policy and its update parameters. Moreover, the scheme is proven to be selectively secure in the random oracle model under the q-Bilinear Diffie Hellman Exponent (q-BDHE) assumption. Performance analysis of the scheme depicts promising results for practical real-world healthcare applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internet of Medical Things in Healthcare Applications)
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21 pages, 3147 KiB  
Article
A Kalman Filter for Multilinear Forms and Its Connection with Tensorial Adaptive Filters
by Laura-Maria Dogariu, Constantin Paleologu, Jacob Benesty, Cristian-Lucian Stanciu, Claudia-Cristina Oprea and Silviu Ciochină
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3555; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103555 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2586
Abstract
The Kalman filter represents a very popular signal processing tool, with a wide range of applications within many fields. Following a Bayesian framework, the Kalman filter recursively provides an optimal estimate of a set of unknown variables based on a set of noisy [...] Read more.
The Kalman filter represents a very popular signal processing tool, with a wide range of applications within many fields. Following a Bayesian framework, the Kalman filter recursively provides an optimal estimate of a set of unknown variables based on a set of noisy observations. Therefore, it fits system identification problems very well. Nevertheless, such scenarios become more challenging (in terms of the convergence and accuracy of the solution) when the parameter space becomes larger. In this context, the identification of linearly separable systems can be efficiently addressed by exploiting tensor-based decomposition techniques. Such multilinear forms can be modeled as rank-1 tensors, while the final solution is obtained by solving and combining low-dimension system identification problems related to the individual components of the tensor. Recently, the identification of multilinear forms was addressed based on the Wiener filter and most well-known adaptive algorithms. In this work, we propose a tensorial Kalman filter tailored to the identification of multilinear forms. Furthermore, we also show the connection between the proposed algorithm and other tensor-based adaptive filters. Simulation results support the theoretical findings and show the appealing performance features of the proposed Kalman filter for multilinear forms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the International Symposium on Electronics and Telecommunications ISETC 2020)
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14 pages, 3747 KiB  
Article
Upconversion Spectral Rulers for Transcutaneous Displacement Measurements
by Melissa M. Suckey, Donald W. Benza, John D. DesJardins and Jeffrey N. Anker
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3554; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103554 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2616
Abstract
We describe a method to measure micron to millimeter displacement through tissue using an upconversion spectral ruler. Measuring stiffness (displacement under load) in muscles, bones, ligaments, and tendons is important for studying and monitoring healing of injuries. Optical displacement measurements are useful because [...] Read more.
We describe a method to measure micron to millimeter displacement through tissue using an upconversion spectral ruler. Measuring stiffness (displacement under load) in muscles, bones, ligaments, and tendons is important for studying and monitoring healing of injuries. Optical displacement measurements are useful because they are sensitive and noninvasive. Optical measurements through tissue must use spectral rather than imaging approaches because optical scattering in the tissue blurs the image with a point spread function typically around the depth of the tissue. Additionally, the optical measurement should have low background and minimal intensity dependence. Previously, we demonstrated a spectral encoder using either X-ray luminescence or fluorescence, but the X-ray luminescence required an expensive X-ray source and used ionizing radiation, while the fluorescence sensor suffered from interference from autofluorescence. Here, we used upconversion, which can be provided with a simple fiber-coupled spectrometer with essentially autofluorescence-free signals. The upconversion phosphors provide a low background signal, and the use of closely spaced spectral peaks minimizes spectral distortion from the tissue. The small displacement noise level (precision) through tissue was 2 µm when using a microscope-coupled spectrometer to collect light. We also showed proof of principle for measuring strain on a tendon mimic. The approach provides a simple method to study biomechanics using implantable sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Position Sensor)
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15 pages, 1758 KiB  
Article
Improving Medication Regimen Recommendation for Parkinson’s Disease Using Sensor Technology
by Jeremy Watts, Anahita Khojandi, Rama Vasudevan, Fatta B. Nahab and Ritesh A. Ramdhani
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3553; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103553 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3091
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease medication treatment planning is generally based on subjective data obtained through clinical, physician-patient interactions. The Personal KinetiGraph™ (PKG) and similar wearable sensors have shown promise in enabling objective, continuous remote health monitoring for Parkinson’s patients. In this proof-of-concept study, we propose [...] Read more.
Parkinson’s disease medication treatment planning is generally based on subjective data obtained through clinical, physician-patient interactions. The Personal KinetiGraph™ (PKG) and similar wearable sensors have shown promise in enabling objective, continuous remote health monitoring for Parkinson’s patients. In this proof-of-concept study, we propose to use objective sensor data from the PKG and apply machine learning to cluster patients based on levodopa regimens and response. The resulting clusters are then used to enhance treatment planning by providing improved initial treatment estimates to supplement a physician’s initial assessment. We apply k-means clustering to a dataset of within-subject Parkinson’s medication changes—clinically assessed by the MDS-Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale-III (MDS-UPDRS-III) and the PKG sensor for movement staging. A random forest classification model was then used to predict patients’ cluster allocation based on their respective demographic information, MDS-UPDRS-III scores, and PKG time-series data. Clinically relevant clusters were partitioned by levodopa dose, medication administration frequency, and total levodopa equivalent daily dose—with the PKG providing similar symptomatic assessments to physician MDS-UPDRS-III scores. A random forest classifier trained on demographic information, MDS-UPDRS-III scores, and PKG time-series data was able to accurately classify subjects of the two most demographically similar clusters with an accuracy of 86.9%, an F1 score of 90.7%, and an AUC of 0.871. A model that relied solely on demographic information and PKG time-series data provided the next best performance with an accuracy of 83.8%, an F1 score of 88.5%, and an AUC of 0.831, hence further enabling fully remote assessments. These computational methods demonstrate the feasibility of using sensor-based data to cluster patients based on their medication responses with further potential to assist with medication recommendations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wearables)
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14 pages, 2392 KiB  
Article
Sensing Optimum in the Raw: Leveraging the Raw-Data Imaging Capabilities of Raspberry Pi for Diagnostics Applications
by Alessandro Tonelli, Veronica Mangia, Alessandro Candiani, Francesco Pasquali, Tiziana Jessica Mangiaracina, Alessandro Grazioli, Michele Sozzi, Davide Gorni, Simona Bussolati, Annamaria Cucinotta, Giuseppina Basini and Stefano Selleri
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3552; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103552 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5681
Abstract
Single-board computers (SBCs) and microcontroller boards (MCBs) are extensively used nowadays as prototyping platforms to accomplish innovative tasks. Very recently, implementations of these devices for diagnostics applications are rapidly gaining ground for research and educational purposes. Among the available solutions, Raspberry Pi represents [...] Read more.
Single-board computers (SBCs) and microcontroller boards (MCBs) are extensively used nowadays as prototyping platforms to accomplish innovative tasks. Very recently, implementations of these devices for diagnostics applications are rapidly gaining ground for research and educational purposes. Among the available solutions, Raspberry Pi represents one of the most used SBCs. In the present work, two setups based on Raspberry Pi and its CMOS-based camera (a 3D-printed device and an adaptation of a commercial product named We-Lab) were investigated as diagnostic instruments. Different camera elaboration processes were investigated, showing how direct access to the 10-bit raw data acquired from the sensor before downstream imaging processes could be beneficial for photometric applications. The developed solution was successfully applied to the evaluation of the oxidative stress using two commercial kits (d-ROM Fast; PAT). We suggest the analysis of raw data applied to SBC and MCB platforms in order to improve results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Physical Sensors Section 2020)
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17 pages, 23052 KiB  
Article
Device-Free Human Activity Recognition with Low-Resolution Infrared Array Sensor Using Long Short-Term Memory Neural Network
by Cunyi Yin, Jing Chen, Xiren Miao, Hao Jiang and Deying Chen
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3551; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103551 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4587
Abstract
Sensor-based human activity recognition (HAR) has attracted enormous interests due to its wide applications in the Internet of Things (IoT), smart homes and healthcare. In this paper, a low-resolution infrared array sensor-based HAR approach is proposed using the deep learning framework. The device-free [...] Read more.
Sensor-based human activity recognition (HAR) has attracted enormous interests due to its wide applications in the Internet of Things (IoT), smart homes and healthcare. In this paper, a low-resolution infrared array sensor-based HAR approach is proposed using the deep learning framework. The device-free sensing system leverages the infrared array sensor of 8×8 pixels to collect the infrared signals, which can ensure users’ privacy and effectively reduce the deployment cost of the network. To reduce the influence of temperature variations, a combination of the J-filter noise reduction method and the Butterworth filter is performed to preprocess the infrared signals. Long short-term memory (LSTM), a representative recurrent neural network, is utilized to automatically extract characteristics from the infrared signal and build the recognition model. In addition, the real-time HAR interface is designed by embedding the LSTM model. Experimental results show that the typical daily activities can be classified with the recognition accuracy of 98.287%. The proposed approach yields a better result compared to the existing machine learning methods, and it provides a low-cost yet promising solution for privacy-preserving scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Enabled Advanced Sensing for Human Action and Activity Recognition)
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14 pages, 815 KiB  
Article
Contrastive Learning for Fault Detection and Diagnostics in the Context of Changing Operating Conditions and Novel Fault Types
by Katharina Rombach, Gabriel Michau and Olga Fink
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3550; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103550 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4484
Abstract
Reliable fault detection and diagnostics are crucial in order to ensure efficient operations in industrial assets. Data-driven solutions have shown great potential in various fields but pose many challenges in Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) applications: Changing external in-service factors and operating conditions [...] Read more.
Reliable fault detection and diagnostics are crucial in order to ensure efficient operations in industrial assets. Data-driven solutions have shown great potential in various fields but pose many challenges in Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) applications: Changing external in-service factors and operating conditions cause variations in the condition monitoring (CM) data resulting in false alarms. Furthermore, novel types of faults can also cause variations in CM data. Since faults occur rarely in complex safety critical systems, a training dataset typically does not cover all possible fault types. To enable the detection of novel fault types, the models need to be sensitive to novel variations. Simultaneously, to decrease the false alarm rate, invariance to variations in CM data caused by changing operating conditions is required. We propose contrastive learning for the task of fault detection and diagnostics in the context of changing operating conditions and novel fault types. In particular, we evaluate how a feature representation trained by the triplet loss is suited to fault detection and diagnostics under the aforementioned conditions. We showcase that classification and clustering based on the learned feature representations are (1) invariant to changing operating conditions while also being (2) suited to the detection of novel fault types. Our evaluation is conducted on the bearing benchmark dataset provided by the Case Western Reserve University (CWRU). Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Artificial Intelligence for Data-Driven Fault Detection and Diagnosis)
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22 pages, 1133 KiB  
Review
Ambient Assisted Living: A Review of Technologies, Methodologies and Future Perspectives for Healthy Aging of Population
by Grazia Cicirelli, Roberto Marani, Antonio Petitti, Annalisa Milella and Tiziana D’Orazio
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3549; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103549 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 103 | Viewed by 12772
Abstract
Over the last decade, there has been considerable and increasing interest in the development of Active and Assisted Living (AAL) systems to support independent living. The demographic change towards an aging population has introduced new challenges to today’s society from both an economic [...] Read more.
Over the last decade, there has been considerable and increasing interest in the development of Active and Assisted Living (AAL) systems to support independent living. The demographic change towards an aging population has introduced new challenges to today’s society from both an economic and societal standpoint. AAL can provide an arrary of solutions for improving the quality of life of individuals, for allowing people to live healthier and independently for longer, for helping people with disabilities, and for supporting caregivers and medical staff. A vast amount of literature exists on this topic, so this paper aims to provide a survey of the research and skills related to AAL systems. A comprehensive analysis is presented that addresses the main trends towards the development of AAL systems both from technological and methodological points of view and highlights the main issues that are worthy of further investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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16 pages, 4937 KiB  
Article
A New Challenge: Detection of Small-Scale Falling Rocks on Transportation Roads in Open-Pit Mines
by Tiandong Shi, Deyun Zhong and Lin Bi
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103548 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2777
Abstract
In transportation at open-pit mines, rocks dropped as a mining truck is driven will wear out the tires of the vehicle, thus increasing the mining cost. In the case of autonomous vehicles, the vehicle must automatically detect rocks on the transportation roads during [...] Read more.
In transportation at open-pit mines, rocks dropped as a mining truck is driven will wear out the tires of the vehicle, thus increasing the mining cost. In the case of autonomous vehicles, the vehicle must automatically detect rocks on the transportation roads during the driving process. This will be a new challenge: rough road, rocks of small size and irregular shape, long detection distance, etc. This paper presents a detection method based on light detection and ranging (lidar). It includes two stages: (1) using the modified cloth simulation method to filter out the ground points; (2) using the regional growth method based on grid division to cluster non-ground points. Experimental results show that the method can detect rocks with a size of 20–30 cm at a distance of 40 m in front of the vehicle, and it takes only 0.3 s on an ordinary personal computer (PC). This method is easy to understand, and it has fewer parameters to be adjusted. Therefore, it is a better method for detecting small, irregular obstacles on a low-speed, unstructured and rough road. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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31 pages, 9453 KiB  
Article
Rain Area Detection in South-Western Kenya by Using Multispectral Satellite Data from Meteosat Second Generation
by Kumah K. Kingsley, Ben H. P. Maathuis, Joost C. B. Hoedjes, Donald T. Rwasoka, Bas V. Retsios and Bob Z. Su
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3547; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103547 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4541
Abstract
This study presents a rain area detection scheme that uses a gradient based adaptive technique for daytime and nighttime rain area detection and correction from reflectance and infrared (IR) brightness temperatures data of the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellite. First, multiple parametric rain [...] Read more.
This study presents a rain area detection scheme that uses a gradient based adaptive technique for daytime and nighttime rain area detection and correction from reflectance and infrared (IR) brightness temperatures data of the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellite. First, multiple parametric rain detection models developed from MSG’s reflectance and IR data were calibrated and validated with rainfall data from a dense network of rain gauge stations and investigated to determine the best model parameters. The models were based on a conceptual assumption that clouds characterised by the top properties, e.g., high optical thickness and effective radius, have high rain probabilities and intensities. Next, a gradient based adaptive correction technique that relies on rain area-specific parameters was developed to reduce the number and sizes of the detected rain areas. The daytime detection with optical (VIS0.6) and near IR (NIR1.6) reflectance data achieved the best detection skill. For nighttime, detection with thermal IR brightness temperature differences of IR3.9-IR10.8, IR3.9-WV73 and IR108-WV62 showed the best detection skill based on general categorical statistics. Compared to the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Mult-isatellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) and the gauge station data from the southwest of Kenya, the model showed good agreement in the spatial dynamics of the detected rain area and rain rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rain Sensors)
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19 pages, 4401 KiB  
Article
Preisach Elasto-Plastic Model for Mild Steel Hysteretic Behavior-Experimental and Theoretical Considerations
by Dragoslav Sumarac, Petar Knezevic, Cemal Dolicanin and Maosen Cao
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3546; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103546 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2690
Abstract
The Preisach model already successfully implemented for axial and bending cyclic loading is applied for modeling of the plateau problem for mild steel. It is shown that after the first cycle plateau disappears an extension of the existing Preisach model is needed. Heat [...] Read more.
The Preisach model already successfully implemented for axial and bending cyclic loading is applied for modeling of the plateau problem for mild steel. It is shown that after the first cycle plateau disappears an extension of the existing Preisach model is needed. Heat dissipation and locked-in energy is calculated due to plastic deformation using the Preisach model. Theoretical results are verified by experiments performed on mild steel S275. The comparison of theoretical and experimental results is evident, showing the capability of the Presicah model in predicting behavior of structures under cyclic loading in the elastoplastic region. The purpose of this paper is to establish a theoretical background for embedded sensors like regenerated fiber Bragg gratings (RFBG) for measurement of strains and temperature in real structures. In addition, the present paper brings a theoretical base for application of nested split-ring resonator (NSRR) probes in measurements of plastic strain in real structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 5th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring and Integrity Management (ICSHMIM 2020))
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22 pages, 3144 KiB  
Article
A Crosstalk- and Interferent-Free Dual Electrode Amperometric Biosensor for the Simultaneous Determination of Choline and Phosphocholine
by Rosanna Ciriello and Antonio Guerrieri
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3545; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103545 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2537
Abstract
Choline (Ch) and phosphocholine (PCh) levels in tissues are associated to tissue growth and so to carcinogenesis. Till now, only highly sophisticated and expensive techniques like those based on NMR spectroscopy or GC/LC- high resolution mass spectrometry permitted Ch and PCh analysis but [...] Read more.
Choline (Ch) and phosphocholine (PCh) levels in tissues are associated to tissue growth and so to carcinogenesis. Till now, only highly sophisticated and expensive techniques like those based on NMR spectroscopy or GC/LC- high resolution mass spectrometry permitted Ch and PCh analysis but very few of them were capable of a simultaneous determination of these analytes. Thus, a never reported before amperometric biosensor for PCh analysis based on choline oxidase and alkaline phosphatase co-immobilized onto a Pt electrode by co-crosslinking has been developed. Coupling the developed biosensor with a parallel sensor but specific to Ch, a crosstalk-free dual electrode biosensor was also developed, permitting the simultaneous determination of Ch and PCh in flow injection analysis. This novel sensing device performed remarkably in terms of sensitivity, linear range, and limit of detection so to exceed in most cases the more complex analytical instrumentations. Further, electrode modification by overoxidized polypyrrole permitted the development of a fouling- and interferent-free dual electrode biosensor which appeared promising for the simultaneous determination of Ch and PCh in a real sample. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Electrochemical Biosensors for Clinical Assays)
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12 pages, 3452 KiB  
Article
Platinum-Based Interdigitated Micro-Electrode Arrays for Reagent-Free Detection of Copper
by Robert Daly, Tarun Narayan, Han Shao, Alan O’Riordan and Pierre Lovera
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3544; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103544 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4320
Abstract
Water is a precious resource that is under threat from a number of pressures, including, for example, release of toxic compounds, that can have damaging effect on ecology and human health. The current methods of water quality monitoring are based on sample collection [...] Read more.
Water is a precious resource that is under threat from a number of pressures, including, for example, release of toxic compounds, that can have damaging effect on ecology and human health. The current methods of water quality monitoring are based on sample collection and analysis at dedicated laboratories. Recently, electrochemical-based methods have attracted a lot of attention for environmental sensing owing to their versatility, sensitivity and their ease of integration with cost effective, smart and portable readout systems. In the present work, we report on the fabrication and characterization of platinum-based interdigitated microband electrodes arrays, and their application for trace detection of copper. Using square wave voltammetry after acidification with mineral acids, a limit of detection of 0.8 μg/L was achieved. Copper detection was also undertaken on river water samples and compared with standard analytical techniques. The possibility of controlling the pH at the surface of the sensors—thereby avoiding the necessity to add mineral acids—was investigated. By applying potentials to drive the water splitting reaction at one comb of the sensor’s electrode (the protonator), it was possible to lower the pH in the vicinity of the sensing electrode. Detection of standard copper solutions down to 5 μg/L (ppb) using this technique is reported. This reagent free method of detection opens the way for autonomous, in situ monitoring of pollutants in water bodies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technologies in Ireland 2020)
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14 pages, 36735 KiB  
Communication
Analog-to-Information Conversion with Random Interval Integration
by Ján Šaliga, Ondrej Kováč and Imrich Andráš
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3543; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103543 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2510
Abstract
A novel method of analog-to-information conversion—the random interval integration—is proposed and studied in this paper. This method is intended primarily for compressed sensing of aperiodic or quasiperiodic signals acquired by commonly used sensors such as ECG, environmental, and other sensors, the output of [...] Read more.
A novel method of analog-to-information conversion—the random interval integration—is proposed and studied in this paper. This method is intended primarily for compressed sensing of aperiodic or quasiperiodic signals acquired by commonly used sensors such as ECG, environmental, and other sensors, the output of which can be modeled by multi-harmonic signals. The main idea of the method is based on input signal integration by a randomly resettable integrator before the AD conversion. The integrator’s reset is controlled by a random sequence generator. The signal reconstruction employs a commonly used algorithm based on the minimalization of a distance norm between the original measurement vector and vector calculated from the reconstructed signal. The signal reconstruction is performed by solving an overdetermined problem, which is considered a state-of-the-art approach. The notable advantage of random interval integration is simple hardware implementation with commonly used components. The performance of the proposed method was evaluated using ECG signals from the MIT-BIH database, multi-sine, and own database of environmental test signals. The proposed method performance is compared to commonly used analog-to-information conversion methods: random sampling, random demodulation, and random modulation pre-integration. A comparison of the mentioned methods is performed by simulation in LabVIEW software. The achieved results suggest that the random interval integration outperforms other single-channel architectures. In certain situations, it can reach the performance of a much-more complex, but commonly used random modulation pre-integrator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)
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19 pages, 5036 KiB  
Article
Automatic Detection of Atrial Fibrillation in ECG Using Co-Occurrence Patterns of Dynamic Symbol Assignment and Machine Learning
by Nagarajan Ganapathy, Diana Baumgärtel and Thomas M. Deserno
Sensors 2021, 21(10), 3542; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103542 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3704
Abstract
Early detection of atrial fibrillation from electrocardiography (ECG) plays a vital role in the timely prevention and diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. Various algorithms have been proposed; however, they are lacking in considering varied-length signals, morphological transitions, and abnormalities over long-term recordings. We propose [...] Read more.
Early detection of atrial fibrillation from electrocardiography (ECG) plays a vital role in the timely prevention and diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. Various algorithms have been proposed; however, they are lacking in considering varied-length signals, morphological transitions, and abnormalities over long-term recordings. We propose dynamic symbolic assignment (DSA) to differentiate a normal sinus rhythm (SR) from paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (PAF). We use ECG signals and their interbeat (RR) intervals from two public databases namely, AF Prediction Challenge Database (AFPDB) and AF Termination Challenge Database (AFTDB). We transform RR intervals into a symbolic representation and compute co-occurrence matrices. The DSA feature is extracted using varied symbol-length V, word-size W, and applied to five machine learning algorithms for classification. We test five hypotheses: (i) DSA captures the dynamics of the series, (ii) DSA is a reliable technique for various databases, (iii) optimal parameters improve DSA’s performance, (iv) DSA is consistent for variable signal lengths, and (v) DSA supports cross-data analysis. Our method captures the transition patterns of the RR intervals. The DSA feature exhibit a statistically significant difference in SR and PAF conditions (p < 0.005). The DSA feature with W=3 and V=3 yield maximum performance. In terms of F-measure (F), rotation forest and ensemble learning classifier are the most accurate for AFPDB (F = 94.6%) and AFTDB (F = 99.8%). Our method is effective for short-length signals and supports cross-data analysis. The DSA is capable of capturing the dynamics of varied-lengths ECG signals. Particularly, the optimal parameters-based DSA feature and ensemble learning could help to detect PAF in long-term ECG signals. Our method maps time series into a symbolic representation and identifies abnormalities in noisy, varied-length, and pathological ECG signals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors toward Unobtrusive Health Monitoring II)
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