Materials

256 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Materials Best Paper Award 2015

by Maryam Tabrizian

Materials 2015, 8(2), 829-831; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020829 - 17 Feb 2015

Viewed by 4755

Materials has established an annual award for the best article and for the best review published in Materials in order to acknowledge the outstanding contributions of our authors in the area of materials science and engineering.[...] Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damping Enhancement of Composite Panels by Inclusion of Shunted Piezoelectric Patches: A Wave-Based Modelling Approach

by Dimitrios Chronopoulos, Manuel Collet and Mohamed Ichchou

Materials 2015, 8(2), 815-828; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020815 - 17 Feb 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5237

Abstract

The waves propagating within complex smart structures are hereby computed by employing a wave and finite element method. The structures can be of arbitrary layering and of complex geometric characteristics as long as they exhibit two-dimensional periodicity. The piezoelectric coupling phenomena are considered [...] Read more.

The waves propagating within complex smart structures are hereby computed by employing a wave and finite element method. The structures can be of arbitrary layering and of complex geometric characteristics as long as they exhibit two-dimensional periodicity. The piezoelectric coupling phenomena are considered within the finite element formulation. The mass, stiffness and piezoelectric stiffness matrices of the modelled segment can be extracted using a conventional finite element code. The post-processing of these matrices involves the formulation of an eigenproblem whose solutions provide the phase velocities for each wave propagating within the structure and for any chosen direction of propagation. The model is then modified in order to account for a shunted piezoelectric patch connected to the composite structure. The impact of the energy dissipation induced by the shunted circuit on the total damping loss factor of the composite panel is then computed. The influence of the additional mass and stiffness provided by the attached piezoelectric devices on the wave propagation characteristics of the structure is also investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Materials)

► Show Figures

2717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alginate-Collagen Fibril Composite Hydrogel

by Mahmoud Baniasadi and Majid Minary-Jolandan

Materials 2015, 8(2), 799-814; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020799 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 87 | Viewed by 16492

Abstract

We report on the synthesis and the mechanical characterization of an alginate-collagen fibril composite hydrogel. Native type I collagen fibrils were used to synthesize the fibrous composite hydrogel. We characterized the mechanical properties of the fabricated fibrous hydrogel using tensile testing; rheometry and [...] Read more.

We report on the synthesis and the mechanical characterization of an alginate-collagen fibril composite hydrogel. Native type I collagen fibrils were used to synthesize the fibrous composite hydrogel. We characterized the mechanical properties of the fabricated fibrous hydrogel using tensile testing; rheometry and atomic force microscope (AFM)-based nanoindentation experiments. The results show that addition of type I collagen fibrils improves the rheological and indentation properties of the hydrogel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanics of Biomaterials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycling of Sustainable Co-Firing Fly Ashes as an Alkali Activator for GGBS in Blended Cements

by Yann-Hwang Wu, Ran Huang, Chia-Jung Tsai and Wei-Ting Lin

Materials 2015, 8(2), 784-798; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020784 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7421

Abstract

This study investigates the feasibility of co-firing fly ashes from different boilers, circulating fluidized beds (CFB) or stokers as a sustainable material in alkali activators for ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). The mixture ratio of GGBS and co-firing fly ashes is 1:1 by [...] Read more.

This study investigates the feasibility of co-firing fly ashes from different boilers, circulating fluidized beds (CFB) or stokers as a sustainable material in alkali activators for ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). The mixture ratio of GGBS and co-firing fly ashes is 1:1 by weight. The results indicate that only CF fly ash of CFB boilers can effectively stimulate the potential characteristics of GGBS and provide strength as an alkali activator. CF fly ash consists of CaO₃ (48.5%), SiO₂ (21.1%), Al₂O₃ (13.8%), SO₃ (10.06%), Fe₂O₃ (2.25%) and others (4.29%). SA fly ash consists of Al₂O₃ (19.7%), SiO₂ (36.3%), Fe2O3 (28.4%) and others (15.6%). SB fly ash consists of Al₂O₃ (15%), SiO₂ (25.4%), Zn (20.6%), SO₃ (10.9%), Fe₂O₃ (8.78%) and others (19.32%). The mixtures of SA fly ash and SB fly ash with GGBS, respectively, were damaged in the compressive strength test during seven days of curing. However, the built up strength of the CF fly ash and GGBS mixture can only be maintained for 7–14 days, and the compressive strength achieves 70% of that of a controlled group (cement in hardening cement paste). The strength of blended CF fly ash and GGBS started to decrease after 28 days, and the phenomenon of ettrigite was investigated due to the high levels of sulfur content. The CaO content in sustainable co-firing fly ashes must be higher than a certain percentage in reacting GGBS to ensure the strength of blended cements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2578 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Effect of Different Non-Metallic Inclusions on the Machinability of Steels

by Niclas Ånmark, Andrey Karasev and Pär Göran Jönsson

Materials 2015, 8(2), 751-783; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020751 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 222 | Viewed by 17047

Abstract

Considerable research has been conducted over recent decades on the role of non‑metallic inclusions and their link to the machinability of different steels. The present work reviews the mechanisms of steel fractures during different mechanical machining operations and the behavior of various non-metallic [...] Read more.

Considerable research has been conducted over recent decades on the role of non‑metallic inclusions and their link to the machinability of different steels. The present work reviews the mechanisms of steel fractures during different mechanical machining operations and the behavior of various non-metallic inclusions in a cutting zone. More specifically, the effects of composition, size, number and morphology of inclusions on machinability factors (such as cutting tool wear, power consumption, etc.) are discussed and summarized. Finally, some methods for modification of non-metallic inclusions in the liquid steel are considered to obtain a desired balance between mechanical properties and machinability of various steel grades. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Steels)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2314 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress on PEDOT-Based Thermoelectric Materials

by Qingshuo Wei, Masakazu Mukaida, Kazuhiro Kirihara, Yasuhisa Naitoh and Takao Ishida

Materials 2015, 8(2), 732-750; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020732 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 199 | Viewed by 16814

Abstract

The thermoelectric properties of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)-based materials have attracted attention recently because of their remarkable electrical conductivity, power factor, and figure of merit. In this review, we summarize recent efforts toward improving the thermoelectric properties of PEDOT-based materials. We also discuss thermoelectric measurement [...] Read more.

The thermoelectric properties of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)-based materials have attracted attention recently because of their remarkable electrical conductivity, power factor, and figure of merit. In this review, we summarize recent efforts toward improving the thermoelectric properties of PEDOT-based materials. We also discuss thermoelectric measurement techniques and several unsolved problems with the PEDOT system such as the effect of water absorption from the air and the anisotropic thermoelectric properties. In the last part, we describe our work on improving the power output of thermoelectric modules by using PEDOT, and we outline the potential applications of polymer thermoelectric generators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Low-Dimensional Anisotropic Thermoelectrics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

697 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Nanotechnology for Restorative Dentistry

by Zohaib Khurshid, Muhammad Zafar, Saad Qasim, Sana Shahab, Mustafa Naseem and Ammar AbuReqaiba

Materials 2015, 8(2), 717-731; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020717 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 185 | Viewed by 29299

Abstract

Rationalizing has become a new trend in the world of science and technology. Nanotechnology has ascended to become one of the most favorable technologies, and one which will change the application of materials in different fields. The quality of dental biomaterials has been [...] Read more.

Rationalizing has become a new trend in the world of science and technology. Nanotechnology has ascended to become one of the most favorable technologies, and one which will change the application of materials in different fields. The quality of dental biomaterials has been improved by the emergence of nanotechnology. This technology manufactures materials with much better properties or by improving the properties of existing materials. The science of nanotechnology has become the most popular area of research, currently covering a broad range of applications in dentistry. This review describes the basic concept of nanomaterials, recent innovations in nanomaterials and their applications in restorative dentistry. Advances in nanotechnologies are paving the future of dentistry, and there are a plenty of hopes placed on nanomaterials in terms of improving the health care of dental patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dental Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1121 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low Temperature Synthesis and Characterization of AlScMo₃O₁₂

by Rebecca Truitt, Ilka Hermes, Alyssa Main, Anne Sendecki and Cora Lind

Materials 2015, 8(2), 700-716; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020700 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6119

Abstract

Recent interest in low and negative thermal expansion materials has led to significant research on compounds that exhibit this property, much of which has targeted the A₂M₃O₁₂ family (A = trivalent cation, M = Mo, W). The expansion [...] Read more.

Recent interest in low and negative thermal expansion materials has led to significant research on compounds that exhibit this property, much of which has targeted the A₂M₃O₁₂ family (A = trivalent cation, M = Mo, W). The expansion and phase transition behavior in this family can be tuned through the choice of the metals incorporated into the structure. An undesired phase transition to a monoclinic structure with large positive expansion can be suppressed in some solid solutions by substituting the A-site by a mixture of two cations. One such material, AlScMo₃O₁₂, was successfully synthesized using non-hydrolytic sol-gel chemistry. Depending on the reaction conditions, phase separation into Al₂Mo₃O₁₂ and Sc₂Mo₃O₁₂ or single-phase AlScMo₃O₁₂ could be obtained. Optimized conditions for the reproducible synthesis of stoichiometric, homogeneous AlScMo₃O₁₂ were established. High resolution synchrotron diffraction experiments were carried out to confirm whether samples were homogeneous and to estimate the Al:Sc ratio through Rietveld refinement and Vegard’s law. Single-phase samples were found to adopt the orthorhombic Sc₂W₃O₁₂ structure at 100 to 460 K. In contrast to all previously-reported A₂M₃O₁₂ compositions, AlScMo₃O₁₂ exhibited positive thermal expansion along all unit cell axes instead of contraction along one or two axes, with expansion coefficients (200–460 K) of α_a = 1.7 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹, α_b = 6.2 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹, α_c = 2.9 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹ and α_V = 10.8 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Materials Characterization)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

3145 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Hydrophilicity and Biocompatibility of Dental Zirconia Ceramics by Oxygen Plasma Treatment

by Ching-Chou Wu, Chung-Kai Wei, Chia-Che Ho and Shinn-Jyh Ding

Materials 2015, 8(2), 684-699; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020684 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 9867

Abstract

Surface properties play a critical role in influencing cell responses to a biomaterial. The objectives of this study were (1) to characterize changes in surface properties of zirconia (ZrO₂) ceramic after oxygen plasma treatment; and (2) to determine the effect of [...] Read more.

Surface properties play a critical role in influencing cell responses to a biomaterial. The objectives of this study were (1) to characterize changes in surface properties of zirconia (ZrO₂) ceramic after oxygen plasma treatment; and (2) to determine the effect of such changes on biological responses of human osteoblast-like cells (MG63). The results indicated that the surface morphology was not changed by oxygen plasma treatment. In contrast, oxygen plasma treatment to ZrO₂ not only resulted in an increase in hydrophilicity, but also it retained surface hydrophilicity after 5-min treatment time. More importantly, surface properties of ZrO₂ modified by oxygen plasma treatment were beneficial for cell growth, whereas the surface roughness of the materials did not have a significant efficacy. It is concluded that oxygen plasma treatment was certified to be effective in modifying the surface state of ZrO₂ and has the potential in the creation and maintenance of hydrophilic surfaces and the enhancement of cell proliferation and differentiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dental Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

632 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Nanocomposite Materials of Graphene Derivatives with Polysaccharides

by Zoi Terzopoulou, George Z. Kyzas and Dimitrios N. Bikiaris

Materials 2015, 8(2), 652-683; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020652 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 13724

Abstract

This review article presents the recent advances in syntheses and applications of nanocomposites consisting of graphene derivatives with various polysaccharides. Graphene has recently attracted much interest in the materials field due to its unique 2D structure and outstanding properties. To follow, the physical [...] Read more.

This review article presents the recent advances in syntheses and applications of nanocomposites consisting of graphene derivatives with various polysaccharides. Graphene has recently attracted much interest in the materials field due to its unique 2D structure and outstanding properties. To follow, the physical and mechanical properties of graphene are then introduced. However it was observed that the synthesis of graphene-based nanocomposites had become one of the most important research frontiers in the application of graphene. Therefore, this review also summarizes the recent advances in the synthesis of graphene nanocomposites with polysaccharides, which are abundant in nature and are easily synthesized bio-based polymers. Polysaccharides can be classified in various ways such as cellulose, chitosan, starch, and alginates, each group with unique and different properties. Alginates are considered to be ideal for the preparation of nanocomposites with graphene derivatives due to their environmental-friendly potential. The characteristics of such nanocomposites are discussed here and are compared with regard to their mechanical properties and their various applications. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1146 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Chemically Combusted Calcium Carbide Residue and Its Influence on Cement Properties

by Hongfang Sun, Zishanshan Li, Jing Bai, Shazim Ali Memon, Biqin Dong, Yuan Fang, Weiting Xu and Feng Xing

Materials 2015, 8(2), 638-651; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020638 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9223

Abstract

Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a waste by-product from acetylene gas production. The main component of CCR is Ca(OH)₂, which can react with siliceous materials through pozzolanic reactions, resulting in a product similar to those obtained from the cement hydration process. [...] Read more.

Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a waste by-product from acetylene gas production. The main component of CCR is Ca(OH)₂, which can react with siliceous materials through pozzolanic reactions, resulting in a product similar to those obtained from the cement hydration process. Thus, it is possible to use CCR as a substitute for Portland cement in concrete. In this research, we synthesized CCR and silica fume through a chemical combustion technique to produce a new reactive cementitious powder (RCP). The properties of paste and mortar in fresh and hardened states (setting time, shrinkage, and compressive strength) with 5% cement replacement by RCP were evaluated. The hydration of RCP and OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) pastes was also examined through SEM (scanning electron microscope). Test results showed that in comparison to control OPC mix, the hydration products for the RCP mix took longer to formulate. The initial and final setting times were prolonged, while the drying shrinkage was significantly reduced. The compressive strength at the age of 45 days for RCP mortar mix was found to be higher than that of OPC mortar and OPC mortar with silica fume mix by 10% and 8%, respectively. Therefore, the synthesized RCP was proved to be a sustainable active cementitious powder for the strength enhanced of building materials, which will result in the diversion of significant quantities of this by-product from landfills. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1005 KiB

Open AccessReview

New Cork-Based Materials and Applications

by Luís Gil

Materials 2015, 8(2), 625-637; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020625 - 10 Feb 2015

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 15656

Abstract

This review work is an update of a previous work reporting the new cork based materials and new applications of cork based materials. Cork is a material which has been used for multiple applications. The most known uses of cork are in stoppers [...] Read more.

This review work is an update of a previous work reporting the new cork based materials and new applications of cork based materials. Cork is a material which has been used for multiple applications. The most known uses of cork are in stoppers (natural and agglomerated cork) for alcoholic beverages, classic floor covering with composite cork tiles (made by the binding of cork particles with different binders), and thermal/acoustic/vibration insulation with expanded corkboard in buildings and some other industrial fields. Many recent developments have been made leading to new cork based materials. Most of these newly developed cork materials are not yet on the market, but they represent new possibilities for engineers, architects, designers and other professionals which must be known and considered, potentially leading to their industrialization. This paper is a review covering the last five years of innovative cork materials and applications also mentioning previous work not reported before. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Al₂O₃/ZrO₂/Y₃Al₅O₁₂ Composites: A High-Temperature Mechanical Characterization

by Paola Palmero, Giovanni Pulci, Francesco Marra, Teodoro Valente and Laura Montanaro

Materials 2015, 8(2), 611-624; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020611 - 10 Feb 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7372

Abstract

An Al₂O₃/5 vol%·ZrO₂/5 vol%·Y₃Al₅O₁₂ (YAG) tri-phase composite was manufactured by surface modification of an alumina powder with inorganic precursors of the second phases. The bulk materials were produced by die-pressing and pressureless [...] Read more.

An Al₂O₃/5 vol%·ZrO₂/5 vol%·Y₃Al₅O₁₂ (YAG) tri-phase composite was manufactured by surface modification of an alumina powder with inorganic precursors of the second phases. The bulk materials were produced by die-pressing and pressureless sintering at 1500 °C, obtaining fully dense, homogenous samples, with ultra-fine ZrO₂ and YAG grains dispersed in a sub-micronic alumina matrix. The high temperature mechanical properties were investigated by four-point bending tests up to 1500 °C, and the grain size stability was assessed by observing the microstructural evolution of the samples heat treated up to 1700 °C. Dynamic indentation measures were performed on as-sintered and heat-treated Al₂O₃/ZrO₂/YAG samples in order to evaluate the micro-hardness and elastic modulus as a function of re-heating temperature. The high temperature bending tests highlighted a transition from brittle to plastic behavior comprised between 1350 and 1400 °C and a considerable flexural strength reduction at temperatures higher than 1400 °C; moreover, the microstructural investigations carried out on the re-heated samples showed a very limited grain growth up to 1650 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method for Aluminum Oxide Thin Films Prepared through Low Temperature Atomic Layer Deposition for Encapsulating Organic Electroluminescent Devices

by Hui-Ying Li, Yun-Fei Liu, Yu Duan, Yong-Qiang Yang and Yi-Nan Lu

Materials 2015, 8(2), 600-610; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020600 - 10 Feb 2015

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 10432

Abstract

Preparation of dense alumina (Al₂O₃) thin film through atomic layer deposition (ALD) provides a pathway to achieve the encapsulation of organic light emitting devices (OLED). Unlike traditional ALD which is usually executed at higher reaction n temperatures that may [...] Read more.

Preparation of dense alumina (Al₂O₃) thin film through atomic layer deposition (ALD) provides a pathway to achieve the encapsulation of organic light emitting devices (OLED). Unlike traditional ALD which is usually executed at higher reaction n temperatures that may affect the performance of OLED, this application discusses the development on preparation of ALD thin film at a low temperature. One concern of ALD is the suppressing effect of ambient temperature on uniformity of thin film. To mitigate this issue, the pumping time in each reaction cycle was increased during the preparation process, which removed reaction byproducts and inhibited the formation of vacancies. As a result, the obtained thin film had both high uniformity and density properties, which provided an excellent encapsulation performance. The results from microstructure morphology analysis, water vapor transmission rate, and lifetime test showed that the difference in uniformity between thin films prepared at low temperatures, with increased pumping time, and high temperatures was small and there was no obvious influence of increased pumping time on light emitting performance. Meanwhile, the permeability for water vapor of the thin film prepared at a low temperature was found to reach as low as 1.5 × 10⁻⁴ g/(m²·day) under ambient conditions of 25 °C and 60% relative humidity, indicating a potential extension in the lifetime for the OLED. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Materials)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Producing Lignin-Based Polyols through Microwave-Assisted Liquefaction for Rigid Polyurethane Foam Production

by Bai-Liang Xue, Jia-Long Wen and Run-Cang Sun

Materials 2015, 8(2), 586-599; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020586 - 10 Feb 2015

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 8608

Abstract

Lignin-based polyols were synthesized through microwave-assisted liquefaction under different microwave heating times (5–30 min). The liquefaction reactions were carried out using polyethylene glycol (PEG-400)/glycerol as liquefying solvents and 97 wt% sulfur acid as a catalyst at 140 °C. The polyols obtained were analyzed [...] Read more.

Lignin-based polyols were synthesized through microwave-assisted liquefaction under different microwave heating times (5–30 min). The liquefaction reactions were carried out using polyethylene glycol (PEG-400)/glycerol as liquefying solvents and 97 wt% sulfur acid as a catalyst at 140 °C. The polyols obtained were analyzed for their yield, composition and structural characteristics using gel permeation chromatography (GPC), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. FT-IR and NMR spectra showed that the liquefying solvents reacted with the phenol hydroxyl groups of the lignin in the liquefied product. With increasing microwave heating time, the viscosity of polyols was slightly increased and their corresponding molecular weight (M_W) was gradually reduced. The optimal condition at the microwave heating time (5 min) ensured a high liquefaction yield (97.47%) and polyol with a suitable hydroxyl number (8.628 mmol/g). Polyurethane (PU) foams were prepared by polyols and methylene diphenylene diisocyanate (MDI) using the one-shot method. With the isocyanate/hydroxyl group ([NCO]/[OH]) ratio increasing from 0.6 to 1.0, their mechanical properties were gradually increased. This study provided some insight into the microwave-assisted liquefied lignin polyols for the production of rigid PU foam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Materials Characterization)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

1757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Structure of FeAl Sinters Fabricated Using Cyclic Loading

by Tomasz Durejko, Michał Ziętala and Zbigniew Bojar

Materials 2015, 8(2), 575-585; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020575 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5328

Abstract

A two stage process including a sintering under a cyclic loading is proposed as an alternative fabrication method of dense FeAl intermetallics from elemental powder mixtures. The first stage (pre-sintering) is conducted at two temperature values (620 °C and 670 °C, respectively) under [...] Read more.

A two stage process including a sintering under a cyclic loading is proposed as an alternative fabrication method of dense FeAl intermetallics from elemental powder mixtures. The first stage (pre-sintering) is conducted at two temperature values (620 °C and 670 °C, respectively) under a static and a cyclic loading with a frequency of 20, 40 and 60 Hz. The second one includes a pressureless sintering at temperature of 1250 °C, under a protective argon atmosphere. A suitable selection of pre-sintering parameters (temperature, type and frequency of pressing) allows approximately five times grain size reduction of FeAl phase in comparison to particle size of raw Fe and Al powder material (40–60 µm), as well as induces an effective fragmentation of oxide layers. For the sinters obtained using 60 Hz loading frequency an oxide particle size of 4.0 or 4.5 µm (smaller for sintering with liquid phase) is observed. Material obtained after the full heat treatment are characterized by a fine-grained structure of chemically homogeneous FeAl phase with uniformly distributed Al₂O₃ spherical particles along grain boundaries. Moreover, it was found that temperature and frequency of loading during the presintering process also affect a consolidation level of the Fe-Al powder mixture, which increases with rising both temperature and frequency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intermetallic Alloys: Fabrication, Properties and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Hall Effect Monitoring of Vacuum Annealing of In₂O₃:H Thin Films

by Hans F. Wardenga, Mareike V. Frischbier, Monica Morales-Masis and Andreas Klein

Materials 2015, 8(2), 561-574; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020561 - 6 Feb 2015

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 7274

Abstract

Hydrogen doped In₂O₃ thin films were prepared by room temperature sputter deposition with the addition of H₂O to the sputter gas. By subsequent vacuum annealing, the films obtain high mobility up to 90 cm²/Vs. The films [...] Read more.

Hydrogen doped In₂O₃ thin films were prepared by room temperature sputter deposition with the addition of H₂O to the sputter gas. By subsequent vacuum annealing, the films obtain high mobility up to 90 cm²/Vs. The films were analyzed in situ by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and ex situ by X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical transmission and Hall effect measurements. Furthermore, we present results from in situ Hall effect measurements during vacuum annealing of In₂O₃:H films, revealing distinct dependence of carrier concentration and mobility with time at different annealing temperatures. We suggest hydrogen passivation of grain boundaries as the main reason for the high mobility obtained with In₂O₃:H films. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Materials)

► Show Figures

1342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Crosslink Density and Stiffness on Mechanical Properties of Type I Collagen Gel

by Shengmao Lin and Linxia Gu

Materials 2015, 8(2), 551-560; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020551 - 6 Feb 2015

Cited by 92 | Viewed by 12302

Abstract

The mechanical properties of type I collagen gel vary due to different polymerization parameters. In this work, the role of crosslinks in terms of density and stiffness on the macroscopic behavior of collagen gel were investigated through computational modeling. The collagen fiber network [...] Read more.

The mechanical properties of type I collagen gel vary due to different polymerization parameters. In this work, the role of crosslinks in terms of density and stiffness on the macroscopic behavior of collagen gel were investigated through computational modeling. The collagen fiber network was developed in a representative volume element, which used the inter-fiber spacing to regulate the crosslink density. The obtained tensile behavior of collagen gel was validated against published experimental data. Results suggest that the cross-linked fiber alignment dominated the strain stiffening effect of the collagen gel. In addition, the gel stiffness was enhanced approximately 40 times as the crosslink density doubled. The non-affine deformation was reduced with the increased crosslink density. A positive bilinear correlation between the crosslink density and gel stiffness was obtained. On the other hand, the crosslink stiffness had much less impact on the gel stiffness. This work could enhance our understanding of collagen gel mechanics and shed lights on designing future clinical relevant biomaterials with better control of polymerization parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanics of Biomaterials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2446 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Method Combining Finite Element Analysis and Digital Image Correlation to Assess Macroscopic Mechanical Properties of Dentin

by Wenlong Wang, Nicolas Roubier, Guillaume Puel, Jean-Marc Allain, Ingrid C. Infante, Jean-Pierre Attal and Elsa Vennat

Materials 2015, 8(2), 535-550; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020535 - 6 Feb 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 11051

Abstract

A literature review points out a large discrepancy in the results of the mechanical tests on dentin that can be explained by stress and strain assessment during the tests. Errors in these assessments during mechanical tests can lead to inaccurate estimation of the [...] Read more.

A literature review points out a large discrepancy in the results of the mechanical tests on dentin that can be explained by stress and strain assessment during the tests. Errors in these assessments during mechanical tests can lead to inaccurate estimation of the mechanical properties of the tested material. On top of that, using the beam theory to analyze the bending test for thick specimens will increase these experimental errors. After summarizing the results of mechanical tests on dentin in the literature, we focus on bending tests and compare the stress assessment obtained by finite element analysis (FEA) and by beam theory application. We show that the difference between the two methods can be quite large in some cases, leading us to prefer the use of FEA to assess stresses. We then propose a new method based on coupling finite element analysis and digital image correlation (DIC) to more accurately evaluate stress distributions, strain distributions and elastic modulus in the case of a three-point bending test. To illustrate and prove the feasibility of the method, it is applied on a dentinal sample so that mean elastic modulus and maximum tensile stress are obtained (11.9 GPa and 143.9 MPa). Note that the main purpose of this study is to focus on the method itself, and not to provide new mechanical values for dentin. When used in standard mechanical testing of dentin, this kind of method should help to narrow the range of obtained mechanical properties values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dental Materials)

► Show Figures

1059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Lapatinib Powder-Entrapped Biodegradable Polymeric Microstructures Fabricated by X-Ray Lithography for a Targeted and Sustained Drug Delivery System

by Eun-Goo Jeong, Hyung Jung Yoo, Byeonghwa Song, Hwang-Phill Kim, Sae-Won Han, Tae-You Kim and Dong-Il Dan Cho

Materials 2015, 8(2), 519-534; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020519 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6901

Abstract

An oral medication of a molecular targeted drug, lapatinib, is taken regularly to maintain the drug concentration within the desired therapeutic levels. To alleviate the need for such cumbersome administration schedules in several drugs, advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs), which can provide time-controlled [...] Read more.

An oral medication of a molecular targeted drug, lapatinib, is taken regularly to maintain the drug concentration within the desired therapeutic levels. To alleviate the need for such cumbersome administration schedules in several drugs, advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs), which can provide time-controlled and sustained drug release, have recently received significant attention. A biodegradable synthetic polymer, such as polycaprolactone (PCL), is usually used as a carrier material for DDSs. In this paper, lapatinib powder-entrapped, PCL microstructures were fabricated with a precise X-ray lithography-based method. In vitro experiments on HER2 positive-human gastric cancer derived NCI-N87 cells were performed to appraise the drug release characteristics of the fabricated DDSs. The in vitro results indicate that after the X-ray lithography process, the lapatinib powder is still working well and show time- and dose- dependent drug release efficiencies. The cell growth inhibition characteristics of one hundred 40-μm sized microstructures were similar to those of a 1 μM lapatinib solution for over 144 h. In conclusion, the developed lapatinib-entrapped PCL microstructures can be used in molecular targeted delivery and sustained release as effective cancer-targeted DDSs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Drug Delivery)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Composite PCMs by Incorporation of Paraffin into Various Building Materials

by Shazim Ali Memon, Wenyu Liao, Shuqing Yang, Hongzhi Cui and Syed Farasat Ali Shah

Materials 2015, 8(2), 499-518; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020499 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 9019

Abstract

In this research, we focused on the development of composite phase-change materials (CPCMs) by incorporation of a paraffin through vacuum impregnation in widely used building materials (Kaolin and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)). The composite PCMs were characterized using environmental scanning electron microscopy [...] Read more.

In this research, we focused on the development of composite phase-change materials (CPCMs) by incorporation of a paraffin through vacuum impregnation in widely used building materials (Kaolin and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)). The composite PCMs were characterized using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) techniques. Moreover, thermal performance of cement paste composite PCM panels was evaluated using a self-designed heating system. Test results showed that the maximum percentage of paraffin retained by Kaolin and GGBS was found to be 18% and 9%, respectively. FT-IR results show that CPCMs are chemically compatible. The phase-change temperatures of CPCMs were in the human comfort zone, and they possessed considerable latent-heat storage capacity. TGA results showed that CPCMs are thermally stable, and they did not show any sign of degradation below 150 °C. From thermal cycling tests, it was revealed that the CPCMs are thermally reliable. Thermal performance tests showed that in comparison to the control room model, the room models prepared with CPCMs reduced both the temperature fluctuations and maximum indoor center temperature. Therefore, the prepared CPCMs have some potential in reducing peak loads in buildings when applied to building facade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

388 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Preparation of Albendazole-Loaded Chitosan-Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles

by Bong-Seok Kang, Sang-Eun Lee, Choon Lian Ng, Jin-Ki Kim and Jeong-Sook Park

Materials 2015, 8(2), 486-498; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020486 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 9050

Abstract

The objective of this study was to improve the solubility of albendazole and optimize the preparation of an oral nanoparticle formulation, using β-cyclodextrin (βCD) and chitosan-tripolyphosphate (TPP) nanoparticles. The solubility of albendazole in buffers, surfactants, and various concentrations of acetic acid solution was [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to improve the solubility of albendazole and optimize the preparation of an oral nanoparticle formulation, using β-cyclodextrin (βCD) and chitosan-tripolyphosphate (TPP) nanoparticles. The solubility of albendazole in buffers, surfactants, and various concentrations of acetic acid solution was investigated. To determine drug loading, the cytotoxic effects of the albendazole concentration in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) were investigated. The formulations were prepared by mixing the drug solution in Tween 20 with the chitosan solution. TPP solution was added dropwise with sonication to produce a nanoparticle through ionic crosslinking. Then the particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of the nanoparticles were investigated to obtain an optimal composition. The solubility of albendazole was greater in pH 2 buffer, Tween 20, and βCD depending on the concentration of acetic acid. Drug loading was determined as 100 µg/mL based on the results of cell viability. The optimized ratio of Tween 20, chitosan/hydroxypropyl βCD, and TPP was 2:5:1, which resulted in smaller particle size and proper zeta positive values of the zeta potential. The chitosan-TPP nanoparticles increased the drug solubility and had a small particle size with homogeneity in formulating albendazole as a potential anticancer agent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Drug Delivery)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Patterning the Stiffness of Elastomeric Nanocomposites by Magnetophoretic Control of Cross-linking Impeder Distribution

by Suvojit Ghosh, Mehran Tehrani, Marwan S. Al-Haik and Ishwar K. Puri

Materials 2015, 8(2), 474-485; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020474 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6467

Abstract

We report a novel method to pattern the stiffness of an elastomeric nanocomposite by selectively impeding the cross-linking reactions at desired locations while curing. This is accomplished by using a magnetic field to enforce a desired concentration distribution of colloidal magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) [...] Read more.

We report a novel method to pattern the stiffness of an elastomeric nanocomposite by selectively impeding the cross-linking reactions at desired locations while curing. This is accomplished by using a magnetic field to enforce a desired concentration distribution of colloidal magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) in the liquid precursor of polydimethysiloxane (PDMS) elastomer. MNPs impede the cross-linking of PDMS; when they are dispersed in liquid PDMS, the cured elastomer exhibits lower stiffness in portions containing a higher nanoparticle concentration. Consequently, a desired stiffness pattern is produced by selecting the required magnetic field distribution a priori. Up to 200% variation in the reduced modulus is observed over a 2 mm length, and gradients of up to 12.6 MPa·mm⁻¹ are obtained. This is a significant improvement over conventional nanocomposite systems where only small unidirectional variations can be achieved by varying nanoparticle concentration. The method has promising prospects in additive manufacturing; it can be integrated with existing systems thereby adding the capability to produce microscale heterogeneities in mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

1095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Foamed Mortar Prepared with Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag

by Xiao Zhao, Siong-Kang Lim, Cher-Siang Tan, Bo Li, Tung-Chai Ling, Runqiu Huang and Qingyuan Wang

Materials 2015, 8(2), 462-473; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020462 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 7732

Abstract

Foamed mortar with a density of 1300 kg/m³ was prepared. In the initial laboratory trials, water-to-cement (w/c) ratios ranging from 0.54 to 0.64 were tested to determine the optimal value for foamed mortar corresponding to the highest compressive strength without compromising its [...] Read more.

Foamed mortar with a density of 1300 kg/m³ was prepared. In the initial laboratory trials, water-to-cement (w/c) ratios ranging from 0.54 to 0.64 were tested to determine the optimal value for foamed mortar corresponding to the highest compressive strength without compromising its fresh state properties. With the obtained optimal w/c ratio of 0.56, two types of foamed mortar were prepared, namely cement-foamed mortar (CFM) and slag-foamed mortar (SFM, 50% cement was replaced by slag weight). Four different curing conditions were adopted for both types of foamed mortar to assess their compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and thermal insulation performance. The test results indicated that utilizing 50% of slag as cement replacement in the production of foamed mortar improved the compressive strength, UPV and thermal insulation properties. Additionally, the initial water curing of seven days gained higher compressive strength and increased UPV values as compared to the air cured and natural weather curing samples. However, this positive effect was more pronounced in the case of compressive strength than in the UPV and thermal conductivity of foamed mortar. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Size on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of an AISI 304L Stainless Steel—A Comparison between Bulk and Fibers

by Francisco J. Baldenebro-Lopez, Cynthia D. Gomez-Esparza, Ramon Corral-Higuera, Susana P. Arredondo-Rea, Manuel J. Pellegrini-Cervantes, Jose E. Ledezma-Sillas, Roberto Martinez-Sanchez and Jose M. Herrera-Ramirez

Materials 2015, 8(2), 451-461; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020451 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 9610

Abstract

In this work, the mechanical properties and microstructural features of an AISI 304L stainless steel in two presentations, bulk and fibers, were systematically studied in order to establish the relationship among microstructure, mechanical properties, manufacturing process and effect on sample size. The microstructure [...] Read more.

In this work, the mechanical properties and microstructural features of an AISI 304L stainless steel in two presentations, bulk and fibers, were systematically studied in order to establish the relationship among microstructure, mechanical properties, manufacturing process and effect on sample size. The microstructure was analyzed by XRD, SEM and TEM techniques. The strength, Young’s modulus and elongation of the samples were determined by tensile tests, while the hardness was measured by Vickers microhardness and nanoindentation tests. The materials have been observed to possess different mechanical and microstructural properties, which are compared and discussed. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Measurement of Sustained Loading and Temperature-Dependent Deformation of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bonded to Concrete

by Yoseok Jeong, Jaeha Lee and WooSeok Kim

Materials 2015, 8(2), 435-450; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020435 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7655

Abstract

This paper aims at presenting the effects of short-term sustained load and temperature on time-dependent deformation of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) bonded to concrete and pull-off strength at room temperature after the sustained loading period. The approach involves experimental and numerical analysis. Single-lap [...] Read more.

This paper aims at presenting the effects of short-term sustained load and temperature on time-dependent deformation of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) bonded to concrete and pull-off strength at room temperature after the sustained loading period. The approach involves experimental and numerical analysis. Single-lap shear specimens were used to evaluate temperature and short-term sustained loading effects on time-dependent behavior under sustained loading and debonding behavior under pull-off loading after a sustained loading period. The numerical model was parameterized with experiments on the concrete, FRP, and epoxy. Good correlation was seen between the numerical results and single-lap shear experiments. Sensitivity studies shed light on the influence of temperature, epoxy modulus, and epoxy thickness on the redistribution of interfacial shear stress during sustained loading. This investigation confirms the hypothesis that interfacial stress redistribution can occur due to sustained load and elevated temperature and its effect can be significant. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural Study of 17-4PH Stainless Steel after Plasma-Transferred Arc Welding

by Dewei Deng, Rui Chen, Qi Sun and Xiaona Li

Materials 2015, 8(2), 424-434; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020424 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8362

Abstract

The improvement of the surface qualities and surface hardening of precipitation hardened martensitic stainless steel 17-4PH was achieved by the plasma-transferred arc welding (PTAW) process deposited with Co-based alloy. The microstructure of the heat affected zone (HAZ) and base metal were characterized by [...] Read more.

The improvement of the surface qualities and surface hardening of precipitation hardened martensitic stainless steel 17-4PH was achieved by the plasma-transferred arc welding (PTAW) process deposited with Co-based alloy. The microstructure of the heat affected zone (HAZ) and base metal were characterized by optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The results show that there are obvious microstructural differences between the base metal and HAZ. For example, base material is transformed from lath martensite to austenite due to the heateffect of the welding process. On the other hand, the precipitate in the matrix (bar-like shape Cr₇C₃ phase with a width of about one hundred nanometres and a length of hundreds of nanometres) grows to a rectangular appearance with a width of about two hundred nanometres and a length of about one micron. Stacking fault could also be observed in the Cr₇C₃ after PTAW. The above means that welding can obviously improve the surface qualities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Steels)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Membranes of PLLA/Collagen for Bone Tissue Engineering: A Comparative Study of Scaffold Production Techniques for Optimal Mechanical Properties and Osteoinduction Ability

by Flávia Gonçalves, Ricardo Bentini, Mariana C. Burrows, Ana C. O. Carreira, Patricia M. Kossugue, Mari C. Sogayar and Luiz H. Catalani

Materials 2015, 8(2), 408-423; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020408 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8853

Abstract

Synthetic and natural polymer association is a promising tool in tissue engineering. The aim of this study was to compare five methodologies for producing hybrid scaffolds for cell culture using poly-l-lactide (PLLA) and collagen: functionalization of PLLA electrospun by (1) dialkylamine and collagen [...] Read more.

Synthetic and natural polymer association is a promising tool in tissue engineering. The aim of this study was to compare five methodologies for producing hybrid scaffolds for cell culture using poly-l-lactide (PLLA) and collagen: functionalization of PLLA electrospun by (1) dialkylamine and collagen immobilization with glutaraldehyde and by (2) hydrolysis and collagen immobilization with carbodiimide chemistry; (3) co-electrospinning of PLLA/chloroform and collagen/hexafluoropropanol (HFP) solutions; (4) co-electrospinning of PLLA/chloroform and collagen/acetic acid solutions and (5) electrospinning of a co-solution of PLLA and collagen using HFP. These materials were evaluated based on their morphology, mechanical properties, ability to induce cell proliferation and alkaline phosphatase activity upon submission of mesenchymal stem cells to basal or osteoblastic differentiation medium (ODM). Methods (1) and (2) resulted in a decrease in mechanical properties, whereas methods (3), (4) and (5) resulted in materials of higher tensile strength and osteogenic differentiation. Materials yielded by methods (2), (3) and (5) promoted osteoinduction even in the absence of ODM. The results indicate that the scaffold based on the PLLA/collagen blend exhibited optimal mechanical properties and the highest capacity for osteodifferentiation and was the best choice for collagen incorporation into PLLA in bone repair applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanics of Biomaterials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Miniaturized Antenna with Negative Index Metamaterial Based on Modified SRR and CLS Unit Cell for UWB Microwave Imaging Applications

by Md. Moinul Islam, Mohammad Tariqul Islam, Md. Samsuzzaman, Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque, Norbahiah Misran and Mohd Fais Mansor

Materials 2015, 8(2), 392-407; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020392 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 99 | Viewed by 11548

Abstract

A miniaturized antenna employing a negative index metamaterial with modified split-ring resonator (SRR) and capacitance-loaded strip (CLS) unit cells is presented for Ultra wideband (UWB) microwave imaging applications. Four left-handed (LH) metamaterial (MTM) unit cells are located along one axis of the antenna [...] Read more.

A miniaturized antenna employing a negative index metamaterial with modified split-ring resonator (SRR) and capacitance-loaded strip (CLS) unit cells is presented for Ultra wideband (UWB) microwave imaging applications. Four left-handed (LH) metamaterial (MTM) unit cells are located along one axis of the antenna as the radiating element. Each left-handed metamaterial unit cell combines a modified split-ring resonator (SRR) with a capacitance-loaded strip (CLS) to obtain a design architecture that simultaneously exhibits both negative permittivity and negative permeability, which ensures a stable negative refractive index to improve the antenna performance for microwave imaging. The antenna structure, with dimension of 16 × 21 × 1.6 mm³, is printed on a low dielectric FR4 material with a slotted ground plane and a microstrip feed. The measured reflection coefficient demonstrates that this antenna attains 114.5% bandwidth covering the frequency band of 3.4–12.5 GHz for a voltage standing wave ratio of less than 2 with a maximum gain of 5.16 dBi at 10.15 GHz. There is a stable harmony between the simulated and measured results that indicate improved nearly omni-directional radiation characteristics within the operational frequency band. The stable surface current distribution, negative refractive index characteristic, considerable gain and radiation properties make this proposed negative index metamaterial antenna optimal for UWB microwave imaging applications. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of pH Sensitive Pluronic-Docetaxel Conjugate Micelles to Balance the Stability and Controlled Release Issues

by Yanchao Liang, Zhihui Su, Yao Yao and Na Zhang

Materials 2015, 8(2), 379-391; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8020379 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 8864

Abstract

A novel polymer-drug conjugate was prepared by the chemical reaction between the copolymer Pluronic P123 and the docetaxel via a pH sensitive hydrazone bond. These pluronic P123-docetaxel (DTX) conjugates (P123-DTX) could form the stable drug-loaded materials that can self-assemble into the defined nano-micelles [...] Read more.

A novel polymer-drug conjugate was prepared by the chemical reaction between the copolymer Pluronic P123 and the docetaxel via a pH sensitive hydrazone bond. These pluronic P123-docetaxel (DTX) conjugates (P123-DTX) could form the stable drug-loaded materials that can self-assemble into the defined nano-micelles in aqueous solution because of their obvious amphiphilic property and low critical micelle concentration. The spherical morphology and particle size of the prepared nano-micelles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering, respectively. Moreover, after the introduction of pH sensitive hydrazone bond, P123-DTX micelle showed a pH dependent drug release behavior. At pH 5.0 (in 48 h), the cumulative release amount of DTX were ~84.9%, which is about six times higher than that at pH 7.4. The prepared novel p123-DTX conjugates may offer a great benefit for drug delivery and controlling the drug release. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Drug Delivery)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Materials, Volume 8, Issue 2 (February 2015) – 30 articles , Pages 379-831

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI