Next Article in Journal
New Sustainable Oil Seed Sources of Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: A Journey from the Ocean to the Field
Next Article in Special Issue
SCHEMA: A Process for the Creation and Evaluation of Serious Games—A Systematic Review towards Sustainability
Previous Article in Journal
Soil Solarization as an Alternative Weed Control Method for Archaeological Sites in the Mediterranean Region
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Impact of Play-Based Learning Settings on Reading, Writing, Listening, and Speaking Skills
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 14
10.3390/su151411325
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Effects of Gamification on Students’ English Language Proficiency: A Meta-Analysis on Research in South Korea

by
Je-Young Lee
1 and
Minkyung Baek
2,*
1
Department of English Education, Jeonju University, Jeonju 55069, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Home Economics Education, Jeonju University, Jeonju 55069, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 11325; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411325
Submission received: 30 June 2023 / Revised: 16 July 2023 / Accepted: 19 July 2023 / Published: 20 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gamification in Sustainable Education)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study presents a meta-analysis of research on the impact of gamification on English language proficiency among South Korean students. Through an examination of 11 cases involving 610 participants, the study reveals a medium effect size (g = 0.517), suggesting that gamification can significantly enhance English language learning outcomes. The analysis also reveals that theses (g = 0.799) reported higher effect sizes than journal articles (g = 0.298), and that the absence of technology in gamified learning interventions could potentially lead to larger effect sizes (g = 0.932). Furthermore, the incorporation of points/scores and badges/rewards showed statistically significant effects on student learning. The study found no significant differences in effect sizes when considering grade, number of participants, weeks, sessions, sessions per week, and the number of gaming elements. The results demonstrate varying impact of gamification across different subcomponents of English proficiency, particularly in the learning of vocabulary, listening, and writing skills. The findings underscore the potential of gamification as a tool for English language learning, but also call for careful consideration in its design and implementation to maximize learning outcomes. Lastly, we offer suggestions for future research and discuss the pedagogical implications of this study.

1. Introduction

The 20th century was characterized by the advent of information technology, marking a significant milestone in the way we learn and educate. However, the 21st century has heralded a new era—the ‘ludic century’, a time when play has assumed a critical role in educational methodologies [1]. In contrast to the 20th century’s focus on merely integrating technology into classrooms, the current century propels us to make learning not just technologically advanced, but also more enjoyable and effective. Among the various strategies adopted to achieve this, gamification, or the application of game elements in non-game contexts, has emerged as a promising approach. The concept of gamification was first introduced in 2002 and has since been incorporated into numerous domains, including education, since 2010 [2].
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education has also benefited from this trend. After the advent of computers, several technological applications have been tested in foreign language education, including computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and technology-enhanced language learning (TELL). The late 1990s and early 2000s saw recognition for the potential of game-based learning in language acquisition [3]. In the realm of EFL, gamification entails the use of game design principles and elements, such as rewards, badges, leaderboards, and challenges. These elements aim to motivate learners, augment their engagement, and render the learning process more enjoyable [4].
The journey to attain proficiency in a foreign language requires significant time and effort. Keeping this in mind, fostering engagement and interest in learners is crucial. Research indicates that learners who exhibit interest and active engagement in their language study perform better and retain the language for longer [5,6]. Hence, gamification can significantly enhance not only the efficiency but also the overall amount of learning.
Nevertheless, the efficacy of gamification in foreign language education is not unanimously agreed upon. Numerous studies (e.g., [7,8,9]) have suggested that gamification positively impacts learning outcomes and improves foreign language skills. Conversely, other studies have highlighted no significant improvements or even potential negative impacts on foreign language learning and behavioral aspects (e.g., [10,11,12]).
With this background, our study aspires to conduct a comprehensive meta-analysis on the influence of gamification on English learning as a foreign language, with a particular focus on experimental studies from South Korea. We aim to evaluate whether English classes employing gamification demonstrate positive effects, and if so, quantify the extent of these benefits. Simultaneously, we intend to scrutinize factors, particularly gaming elements, that moderate the impact of gamification on learning. Prior to presenting the methodology and results of our research, we will delve into the gaming elements, known for significantly influencing the success or failure of gamification, and underline the importance and uniqueness of the present study.

1.1. Gaming Elements in Gamification

Gamification, defined as the application of game design elements in non-gaming environments, has been recognized for its potential to enhance user engagement, productivity, and learning outcomes. In the context of education, the integration of gaming elements into learning experiences—known as gamified learning—is particularly notable for its array of associated benefits.
Engagement, an essential component of effective learning, is greatly amplified by the deliberate choice and incorporation of gaming elements [13]. These elements also function as powerful aids in reinforcing learning outcomes by providing learners with immediate and tangible feedback [14]. Moreover, gaming elements facilitate an environment of healthy competition and collaboration, augmenting social interaction and collective learning [15]. The multifaceted nature of these elements accommodates diverse learning styles and rates, fostering a more inclusive and individualized learning experience [16].
Building on existing academic work, Toda et al. [17] presented an expanded taxonomy of gaming elements. This is concisely summarized by the researchers, as provided in the following Table 1.
The practical implementation of this gamification taxonomy can significantly shape learning environments. When integrated correctly, these dimensions can create an interactive, motivating, and meaningful learning experience. However, their application necessitates careful balance. Constructive and motivating performance feedback is one example of this [18]. It is crucial to promote healthy competition and collaboration through ecological and social dimensions [15], and to cater to individual learning preferences and pace with personal elements [16]. Fictional elements should be used to enhance immersion without distracting from educational content [19]. While gamification can boost user engagement and motivation, an unbalanced emphasis or misuse can lead to stress, disengagement, or unhealthy competition [20]. Therefore, gamification should be thoughtfully planned and executed with an emphasis on enriching learning and overall student experiences [21].

1.2. Contributions of This Study

The present study carries significant importance, as it uniquely focuses on the influence of gamification on English language proficiency. As one of the most frequently attempted applications of gamification is in the field of foreign languages, this specificity holds substantial relevance. Previous research by Bai et al. [2] has reported an effect size of g = 0.377 for language subjects, but there still exists a gap in quantitative meta-analytical studies that concentrate particularly on the impact within foreign languages, and more specifically, English. This gap is especially noteworthy considering the integral role of English as a functional subject and the prevalent usage of various technological tools in its teaching and learning processes. Therefore, a meta-analysis exploring the effects of gamification within English education holds immense significance.
Secondly, this research narrows its focus to studies conducted exclusively within South Korea. A qualitative meta-analysis by Kwon and Lyou [22] on gamification studies within South Korea identified ‘education’ as the most active field of such studies since 2010. In comparison with other regions, Bai et al. [2] reported that the implementation of gamification yielded higher effects in East Asian regions, including South Korea (g = 0.514), compared to South America (g = 0.39), North America (g = 0.254), and Southern Europe (g = −0.725). Additionally, the latest curriculum from South Korea’s Ministry of Education [23] emphasizes the application of various technologies in education to integrate education for sustainable development. For example, the national curriculum for English language stated that “the English language subject nurtures students’ English communication skills, cultivating fundamental competencies and adaptability to actively respond to societal changes prompted by digital transformation, climate change, and environmental disasters. Communicating in English means acquiring various forms of information expressed in English within real-life contexts connected to the students’ lives. It also involves freely and creatively expressing their thoughts and feelings in English, and cooperatively interacting with other participants in the English-speaking community (p. 5)”. There has been a surge in the active implementation of training programs aimed at strengthening teachers’ digital literacy, with a special focus on technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) [24,25,26]. Hence, a meta-analysis centered on studies from South Korea, a region striving for diverse technology-education integrations, including gamification, is likely to provide significant insights into the overall effects of gamification and the factors that dictate its success or failure.
Thirdly, the study proposes new insights regarding publication bias, particularly with regards to language bias. Publication bias is a vital issue to consider in meta-analysis, as it can considerably distort research conclusions [27]. Language bias pertains to the preferential selection and citation of studies published in certain languages, commonly English, at the expense of other languages. This bias can significantly influence the accessibility, interpretation, and generalizability of research findings [28,29]. Meta-analyses and systematic reviews published in English-language journals often overlook studies penned in other languages. Despite the impracticality of mastering every language containing relevant literature, researchers must remain cognizant of this limitation and its bearing on the body of literature under review [30].
Some scholars have put forth several pragmatic strategies for reducing language bias in meta-analysis, including: (1) incorporating non-English studies, (2) implementing a comprehensive search strategy involving multiple databases and sources of grey literature, (3) collaborating with researchers fluent in diverse languages, and (4) employing language bias assessment tools such as Egger’s Test and Funnel Plots [28,31,32]. Following these guidelines, this study employs a systematic approach, as detailed in the methodology section, to mitigate language bias and publication bias.
Firstly, this study includes research written in languages other than English, specifically Korean, to ensure the representation of non-English literature. Secondly, a comprehensive search strategy was employed, encompassing multiple academic databases to gather a broad spectrum of relevant literature. Additionally, we sought out unpublished material, such as dissertations and research reports, to reduce the impact of publication bias. Lastly, to assess the presence and impact of potential language bias, we conducted a statistical validation of publication bias, employing tools such as Egger’s Test. Therefore, through these multi-pronged strategies, this study aims to present a thorough and balanced meta-analysis by minimizing the influence of language bias.
The specific objectives of this research can be listed as follows:
  • To evaluate the effect of gamification on the English proficiency of Korean students.
  • To identify the moderating factors, such as gaming elements, influencing the effects of gamification on Korean students’ English proficiency.
  • To investigate any differences in the effects of gamification on Korean students’ English proficiency based on various dependent variables.

2. Methods

2.1. Selection of Studies for Analysis

The scope of this meta-analysis is defined by studies that have investigated the influence of gamification on English proficiency, identified through a search on the Research Information Sharing Service (RISS). RISS, a well-acknowledged Korean academic database, provides a broad platform to perform meta-searches across prime academic databases in Korea, such as KCI, DBpia, e-article, KISS, Kyobo Scholar, etc. Furthermore, RISS accommodates almost all of Master’s theses and Doctoral dissertations from universities in South Korea. The search, conducted in April 2023, utilized keywords such as ‘gamification’ and ‘gamified learning’, along with their Korean equivalents.
The initial collection phase accumulated a total of 237 studies: 154 from academic journals and 83 theses. A series of refining steps, as depicted in Figure 1, were then applied to this primary collection, following the PRISMA statement [33].
In the selection process, inclusion and exclusion criteria were established with reference to previous studies [2,34,35,36], creating a definitive framework for this meta-analysis:
(a)
Only studies that empirically investigated gamified practices were included, excluding any that simply discussed or described gamification without empirical backing.
(b)
The focus was placed on studies conducted in K-12 or higher education settings. Any studies where interventions were held in out-of-school environments, such as private tutoring or extracurricular academies, were omitted.
(c)
Included studies were required to objectively measure students’ English proficiency after the treatment. Studies were excluded if they solely relied on self-reported data about students learning achievements.
(d)
Studies had to explicitly mention the usage of at least one game element. Those not specifying the game elements used were excluded.
(e)
Finally, studies were excluded if their datasets or results lacked sufficient information for effect size calculations, such as missing sample size data or mean scores without corresponding standardized deviation values.

2.2. Codebook

The objective of this study is to explore the impact of gamification on EFL learners’ English proficiency. In order to do so, each study is classified according to analysis criteria, as displayed in Table 2. Two independent researchers conducted the analysis, reconciling any differences in coding outcomes via discussion and consensus.
To begin with, let us explain the moderating variables, which are classified under a nominal scale. The ‘publication type’ is the first criterion, differentiating between studies published in academic journals and those presented as master’s theses. Notably, no doctoral dissertation was included in the final meta-analysis.
The second criterion, ‘experimental design’, is employed to categorize the study designs investigating the effects of gamification. As per Brown’s classification [37] for the L2 field, experimental study designs are divided into: (1) true-experimental design, using both random sampling and control groups, (2) quasi-experimental design, only employing control groups without random sampling, and (3) pre-experimental design, which lacks both random sampling and control groups. This study adopts these categories. However, it should be noted that this study is confined to experimental studies carried out in K-12 and universities, where random sampling is infrequently applied. Therefore, none of the studies featured random sampling.
The ‘school level’ is the third criterion, categorizing the setting of the experiment into primary school, secondary school, and university. Initially, a distinction was planned between middle and high schools, but no middle school studies were included in the final meta-analysis.
The fourth criterion, ‘technology use’, differentiates between studies that incorporated technology-related elements, such as computers, tablets, or applications, in their gamification process, and those that did not.
The fifth criterion, ‘gaming element’, classifies the elements utilized in each gamified learning experiment, only recording those explicitly mentioned in each study, and recategorizing these according to the classifications of prior studies [2,17,34,38,39,40].
Items 6–11 correspond to continuous scale (interval scale) moderators, with the results for each case entered as raw data (numerical data). In the ‘grade’ category, the grades of experiment participants are recorded. In studies where multiple grades are involved in the experiment [17,41], an average grade is calculated based on the ratio of students by grade and recorded.
For ‘number of participants’, the total number of students from both the experimental and control groups are added up. While conducting a meta-analysis, both approaches can be utilized, depending on the research question and the context of the study. Yet, it is typically more common to use the total number of participants from both groups, especially when determining effect sizes such as standardized mean differences. These effect sizes rely on the variability within both groups, and larger sample sizes usually offer more dependable estimates of the effect size [27].
The set of items—‘weeks’, ‘sessions’, and ‘sessions per weeks’—evaluates the influence of treatment duration on gamified learning. Although all studies in this meta-analysis provided information about the week, some studies [17,42] did not provide session information. There are various methods for handling missing values, such as the likewise or pairwise deletion [43], model-based method [44], and imputation method [45,46]. In this study, regression imputation, which can predict missing values based on other variables and maintain the relationship between variables as much as possible, was used.
The final set of items, ‘dependent variables’, assesses the English-proficiency-related variables under examination for the effects of gamification. There were a total of six dependent variables among the studies targeted in this meta-analysis: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, and achievement. The results of each study’s coding, classified by these criteria, are presented in Appendix A and Appendix B.

2.3. Instruments and Analysis

This section delineates the tools used for the meta-analysis, the procedure undertaken, and the methods of interpretation. The meta-analysis was carried out using three types of software: Excel 16.73, Comprehensive Meta Analysis (CMA) 3.3, and R Studio 2023.06.0+421. We utilized Excel for coding and entering data for each research. Subsequently, CMA 3 facilitated the computation of individual effect sizes and the homogeneity test (Q-test) for categorical variables, which was necessary for the subgroup analysis. Meanwhile, the ‘metafor’ package in R Studio was employed for the meta-regression analysis of continuous moderating variables, the evaluation of publication bias, and the visualization of our findings.
In terms of effect size computation, we applied Hedges’ g. Notably, although Hedges’ g and Cohen’s d bear similarities in interpretation, the former includes a bias correction contributing to more conservative effect size estimates. This measure assists in reducing Type I errors, thus preventing false claims of an effect when none is present [47].
The choice of the analytical model hinged on the Q-test for homogeneity. As a general protocol, a Fixed Effect Model was adopted where homogeneity was established, while a Random Effect Model was used in the absence of homogeneity [27]. Subsequent to the Q-test, we computed the mean effect size. We also scrutinized the presence of publication bias utilizing multiple approaches, including Egger’s Regression Test, Begg’s Rank Correlation Test, Trim and Fill Method, and fail-safe N analysis.
We conducted separate analyses of the effects of moderating and dependent variables, keeping their nature in consideration. For variables on a discrete scale, we executed a homogeneity test (Q-test) to verify statistically significant differences among the variables. In the case of moderating variables on a continuous scale, a meta-regression analysis was performed to assess their impact on dependent variables.
Finally, Cohen’s guidelines [48] informed the interpretation of effect sizes, with 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 representing ‘small’, ‘medium’, and ‘large’ effect sizes, respectively. The process of interpreting effect sizes adhered to these benchmarks, while acknowledging alternative standards proposed by other scholars [49,50,51,52].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Homogeneity Test and Assessment of Effect Sizes

Before the computation of effect sizes, we conducted a homogeneity test (Q-test). The outcome revealed a significant level of heterogeneity amongst the analyzed studies (Q = 30.848, df = 10, p = 0.001). Notably, about two-thirds of the observed variability in the results across studies (indicated by the I2 statistic of 67.583) was due to true differences in effect sizes rather than merely sampling errors. Considering the typical interpretation of I2 values—25%, 50%, and 75%, corresponding to low, moderate, and high heterogeneity, respectively [53], our study unveiled a moderate to high level of heterogeneity.
Card provides three potential options for instances where significant heterogeneity is identified: (1) disregarding the heterogeneity and proceeding with analysis as if the data were homogeneous, an approach that is typically considered least justifiable; (2) undertaking moderator analyses, which leverage the coded characteristics of the studies, such as methodological features or sample attributes, to predict variances in effect sizes between studies; or (3) adopting an alternative to the Fixed Effect Model, specifically the Random Effect Model, which conceptualizes the population effect size as a distribution rather than a fixed point (pp. 184–185) [30]. In response to the detected heterogeneity in this study, we applied the Random Effects Model to compute the mean effect size, thus mitigating potential errors attributed to the heterogeneity. We also pursued further investigation into the heterogeneity sources through a subgroup analysis and meta-regression analysis, based on the characteristics of the moderator.
Subsequently, we employed Hedges’ g to determine the individual effect size for each study. As shown in Figure 2, the resulting individual effect sizes displayed a range from −0.26 to 1.26. Among these, we observed nine instances of positive effect sizes and two of negative, indicating that most studies reported beneficial outcomes.
The overall mean effect size, computed via the random-effects model, was 0.517, which signifies a medium effect size (N = 610, k = 11, g = 0.517, se = 0.139, CI = 0.245–0.790, Z = 3.718, p = 0.000). This implies that the employment of gamification-based English instruction can lead to a medium-to-large improvement in English proficiency.
As noted in the previous discussion on related literature, no quantitative meta-analysis has been conducted solely on the impact of gamification on foreign language learning to date. Nonetheless, Bai et al. [2] have documented that gamification in diverse educational contexts correlates with a medium effect size (g = 0.504) on academic achievements. Interestingly, they reported a slightly smaller effect size (g = 0.377) for language-related disciplines. While their study did not isolate foreign languages, particularly English, a larger effect size emerged from the findings of the present study. In reviewing the collective findings of past meta-analyses that investigated the influence of gamification on academic achievements across a range of subjects, inclusive of foreign languages, the reported effect sizes typically fall into the medium effect size ([34]: g = 0.464; [35]: g = 0.49; [36]; g = 0.557). Remarkably, these reported effect sizes are closely aligned with the findings from the current study. As such, the evidence suggests that the application of gamification could result in a moderate increase in academic achievements across various disciplines, including English as a Foreign Language.

3.2. Publication Bias

Publication bias was assessed using various statistical analyses, including a funnel plot with Egger’s Regression Test, Begg’s Rank Correlation Test, Trim and Fill Method, and fail-safe N analysis. Each study’s effect size and standard error were derived, and the resulting funnel plot (Figure 3) showed considerable symmetry. The results from Egger’s Regression Test were not statistically significant (z = −0.5410, p = 0.589), suggesting no evidence of funnel plot asymmetry or publication bias in this meta-analysis [31].
The Begg’s Rank Correlation Test measured the correlation between the ranks of effect sizes and their variances. A negative Kendall’s tau (−0.2727) suggests smaller studies tended to show smaller effects, but the relationship is not strong. The p-value of 0.283, being greater than 0.05, indicates the asymmetry observed in the funnel plot is not statistically significant. Thus, there is insufficient evidence of publication bias based on this test [57].
The Trim and Fill method, a non-parametric technique, estimates potentially missing studies due to publication bias by assessing the funnel plot’s symmetry [58]. The method identified no missing studies on the right side of the funnel plot (SE = 2.1765), suggesting no substantial publication bias.
Finally, the fail-safe N was calculated using the Rosenthal approach. The fail-safe N method estimates the number of unpublished studies with null findings that would need to exist to make the meta-analysis finding statistically non-significant. The fail-safe N of this meta-analysis is 197, exceeding Rosenthal’s threshold of 5k + 10 (65 for this study) [59]. Therefore, given the observed significance level of less than 0.0001, the meta-analysis results appear robust and not overly influenced by publication bias.

3.3. Effect Sizes by Moderating Variables

The noticeable heterogeneity across the study results instigated a more detailed exploration of potential sources [30]. The results from each study were stratified according to various moderators. Subsequently, an analysis was carried out to identify whether these stratified groups manifested statistically significant disparities in their respective effect sizes.

3.3.1. Subgroup Analysis

For moderators grouped under a nominal scale, a Q-test was utilized to gauge the variances in effect sizes among the subvariables. This classification incorporated five variables. With respect to gaming elements, there were nine subvariables. Given that numerous studies incorporated a mix of multiple gaming elements, the examination was organized depending on the inclusion or exclusion of each individual element in the experiment. The mean effect size for the variables, except gaming elements, is presented in Table 3.
  • Publication type
Upon assessing the impact of gamification by the type of publication, it was observed that master’s theses (g = 0.799) exhibited a higher effect size than that of journal articles (g = 0.289). Statistical significance was confirmed for these differences via a homogeneity test (Q = 6.426, df = 1, p = 0.011). Interestingly, these findings are in stark contrast to those presented by Huang et al. [34], where journal articles (g = 0.662) and conference proceedings (g = 0.666) recorded a medium-to-large effect size, while dissertations/theses exhibited a negative effect size (g = −0.170).
Numerous studies concerning publication bias warn of an increased propensity for published studies to exhibit positive effects in comparison to their unpublished counterparts, often attributing such tendencies to journals’ bias towards positive results [60,61], researchers’ bias towards positive results [62], and the phenomenon of ‘salami slicing’ [63]. However, in an interesting deviation from these widely held perspectives, the findings of this study contradict the commonly perceived pattern.
A potential explanation for these findings might be rooted in the research settings. Specifically, journal articles, which tended to report relatively lower effects, were predominantly conducted in university environments. On the other hand, the theses that reported larger effect sizes were chiefly carried out in elementary school settings. This disparity in research settings across different types of sources may account for the observed differences.
2.
Experimental design
The current study, following Brown’s classification [37], divided the experimental design into two types: quasi-experimental and pre-experimental. In the quasi-experimental design, while no random sampling was conducted, both control and experimental groups were set up. In contrast, the pre-experimental design only included an experimental group, without implementing any random sampling. The results displayed a medium-to-large effect size (g = 0.778) in the pre-experimental design and a small-to-medium effect size (g = 0.475) in the quasi-experimental design. However, this difference was not statistically significant (Q = 2.953, df = 1, p = 0.103).
Sailer and Hommer’s study [35] utilized the presence of randomization, differentiating between the true-experimental design and quasi-experimental design, as a moderating variable in their meta-analysis on the impact of gamification on academic achievement. Their findings revealed a larger effect size in the quasi-experimental design (g = 0.56) than in the true-experimental design (g = 0.29). Upon synthesizing the findings of both studies, a trend became evident: as experimental designs become stricter, the effect sizes reported tend to decrease.
3.
School level
A comparison of the effects of gamification was conducted in the educational environments of primary school, secondary school, and university. The results revealed that gamification had the largest effect size in primary schools, with a value of 0.801. The effect size was slightly lower in secondary schools (g = 0.624) and further reduced in universities (g = 0.270). Although there was a decreasing trend in effect sizes as the school level increased, these differences were not statistically significant (Q = 5.589, df = 2, p = 0.061). This finding aligns with a previous meta-analytic study that examined the influence of gamification on academic achievement [2,34,36], which also found no statistically significant differences among school levels.
The observed pattern of decreasing effect sizes from primary schools to universities could be attributed to various factors. To begin, primary school students generally demonstrate a keen interest in play and games, which makes them potentially more receptive to gamification in education. The familiarity and engagement with digital games outside school settings might facilitate the transference of this enthusiasm into the classroom when gamified methods are adopted [64].
In contrast, as we ascend the educational ladder to secondary schools and universities, students’ learning preferences and motivations may undergo significant shifts. Older students, for instance, could perceive gamification elements, such as rewards, points, and badges, as somewhat infantile or even as distractions from their main educational objectives. Intrinsically motivated, these students often place greater value on autonomous and self-directed learning experiences, exhibiting a tendency to favor traditional teaching methodologies over gamified ones [65,66].
While these considerations offer insight into the decreasing trend of effect sizes, they also highlight the importance of adapting educational strategies to cater to the evolving needs and preferences of students at different stages of their academic journey. Therefore, the effective implementation of gamification in education, across all levels, may require a nuanced approach tailored to the age and preferences of the learners.
4.
Technology use
In this moderator, we examined the impact of gamification on learning outcomes, particularly differentiating between instances where technology such as computers, tablets, or applications were utilized and those where no technology was used. The outcomes yielded a noticeable distinction between the two groups. In scenarios where technology was absent, we observed an effect size of g = 0.932, surpassing the range defined as a large effect size. However, when technology was incorporated, the effect size (g = 0.383) fell within the range of a small-to-medium effect size. The difference in these results was found to be statistically significant (Q = 4.171, df = 1, p = 0.041).
The results in this moderator analysis, demonstrating higher effect sizes in non-technology gamified interventions, appear to be in opposition to the findings of Yıldırım’s research, which did not identify a significant difference between technology-based and non-technology courses in a gamified class [36]. Similarly, in Bai et al.’s examination of gamification’s impact, treating flipped learning as a moderating variable, no significant statistical difference was found, although a slightly higher effect size was reported in flipped classes (g = 0.671) compared to non-flipped ones (g = 0.446) [2].
This discrepancy in outcomes raises important considerations about the role of technology in gamified educational environments. Despite the widespread belief in the efficacy of technology in enhancing learning outcomes, our study suggests that its deployment does not inherently guarantee improved results. This might be due to the increased focus and reduced distractions that a non-digital environment might offer. Furthermore, the effectiveness of technology use in second language (L2) learning is highly dependent on a myriad of contextual factors. These may include individual differences among learners, such as their learning preferences, learning styles, and varying levels of technology accessibility and familiarity. All these factors could significantly influence the effectiveness of incorporating technology into the language learning process [67]. This would necessitate a careful evaluation of whether the use of technology would enhance or potentially detract from the intended learning outcomes.
5.
Gaming elements
Gamification can be implemented using various gaming elements. In this study, the gaming elements utilized in each study were extracted during the coding process, and were organized into nine subelements based on the classification of previous research. As multiple elements were discovered through this process, and because several elements were used simultaneously in each study, the effectiveness of gaming elements was compared based on the use of each element. The results are presented in Table 4.
Among the nine subvariables, statistically significant differences were found for point/score and badge/reward. First, in the case of point/score, the use of this element corresponded to a small-to-medium effect size of 0.340, while the absence of its use corresponded to a large effect size of 0.840 (Q = 6.235, df = 1, p = 0.013). Secondly, for ‘badge/reward’, there was a difference of about 0.48 between cases where it was applied (g = 0.832) and not applied (g = 0.351), which was statistically significant (Q = 5.088, df = 1, p = 0.024). On the other hand, no statistically significant differences were found for the other variables, such as avatar/character, leaderboard/scoreboard, feedback, level, collaboration, mission/challenge, and story/fiction.
The findings of Hamari, Koivisto, and Sarsa [68], which highlighted the capacity of various gaming elements, notably points, badges, and leaderboards, to boost student motivation and subsequently enhance academic performance. The prominent effects of these distinct gaming elements suggest that they potentially stimulate students’ intrinsic motivation by furnishing palpable markers of progress and accomplishments. Contrastingly, Huang and colleagues [34] did not identify any significant differences among 14 gaming elements, including leaderboards, badges/awards, points/experiences, and advancements/levels. Similarly, Bai et al. [2] found no statistical significance when comparing effects across types of gaming elements.
In view of these divergent findings, while points/scores and badges/rewards seem to be influential components within gamified learning environments, educators are urged to consider the comprehensive design of the learning experience. This includes contemplating the synergistic effects among various gaming elements and aligning them with the specific needs and preferences of learners. It is imperative to underscore that the effectiveness of these gaming elements may fluctuate depending on the context and the characteristics of the learners [14].

3.3.2. Meta-Regression Analysis

Meta-regression analysis was used to scrutinize the impact of interval-scale moderating variables, such as grade, duration of instruction (in weeks), number of class sessions, number of gaming elements, etc., on the dependent variable. The outcomes of this investigation are detailed in Table 5.
In a meta-regression analysis, the regression coefficient, or ‘estimate’, provides insight into the potential increase (when the estimate is positive) or decrease (when the estimate is negative) in the dependent variable for each unit increase in the independent variable [27]. In the provided results, all the p-values exceed the standard significance threshold of 0.05, suggesting that none of the examined variables—grade, number of participants, weeks, sessions, sessions per week, and number of gaming elements—significantly influence the outcome in this meta-regression model.
Contrasting with this study, Bai et al. [2] found statistically significant differences in sample size and intervention duration. However, it is noteworthy that Bai’s findings were based on a subgroup analysis rather than a meta-regression. In Bai’s study, the relationship between sample size and effect sizes was not linear, showing effect sizes of g = 0.984 for 50–100 participants, g = 0.501 for fewer than 50 participants, and g = 0.106 for more than 150 participants. A similar non-linear pattern was observed for intervention duration, with effect sizes of g = 0.906 for 1–3 months, g = 0.533 for less than 1 week, g = 0.488 for 1 week to 1 month, and g = −0.278 for 1 semester or longer. Similarly, Sailer and Hommer [35] did not find any statistically significant difference when conducting a subgroup analysis according to the duration of intervention. The fact that the largest effect sizes were not found in the largest sample size or the longest intervention duration groups implies that ‘more’ is not necessarily ‘better’ in the context of gamified learning. These non-linear relationships concerning the effect size, sample size, intervention duration, and other variables may point to the existence of ‘sweet spots’ that might be optimal for gamified learning implementations.

3.4. Mean Effect Sizes by Dependent Variables

The study divided the dependent variables from each research into six domains: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, and achievement. Further stratification was performed within these categories. In DV1, the variables were split between receptive and productive skill, whereas in DV2, they were categorized into spoken and written language. A noteworthy detail is that Kim’s study [19], initially classified under ‘achievement’, primarily focused on reading. Thus, it was classified under ‘comprehension’ in DV1 and ‘written language’ in DV2. The outcomes, derived through these classifications and subclassifications, are presented in Table 6.
Comparisons between receptive skills (g = 0.522) and productive skills (g = 0.559) in DV1 and between spoken language (g = 0.760) and written language (g = 0.473) in DV2 revealed no statistically significant differences. After delving deeper with a subgroup analysis based on the subcomponents of English proficiency, distinct trends emerged. Notably, the use of vocabulary displayed a large effect size (g = 0.875), while listening (g = 0.778) and writing (g = 0.527) skills demonstrated medium-to-large effect sizes. Other factors, such as speaking, achievement, and reading skills, indicated a small-to-medium effect size. Particularly intriguing was the observation that the single case study related to reading resulted in a negative effect size (g = −0.256).
Upon delving deeper into the subcomponents of English proficiency, vocabulary usage displayed a large effect size. This aligns with the observation that vocabulary acquisition plays a crucial role in language learning [69]. Similarly, listening and writing skills demonstrated medium-to-large effect sizes, emphasizing the potential of gamified interventions in improving these specific skill sets. In contrast, speaking, achievement, and reading skills indicated a small-to-medium effect size. It is particularly interesting to note that the single case study related to reading resulted in a negative effect size. This might indicate that certain gamified approaches are less effective for reading instruction, or that other variables might have affected the outcomes of that specific study. However, the effectiveness of different methods in reading instruction is known to vary considerably [70], suggesting that more research is needed to fully understand this result. To sum up, more nuanced research could investigate further how different elements of gamified learning might be more or less effective for different language skills [71].

4. Conclusions and Implications

The meta-analysis provided in this study highlighted the significant impact of gamification on English language learning. The results show that the use of gamification in education positively affects English language learning (g = 0.517). Simultaneously, significant heterogeneity was found among the results of the subjects of this meta-analysis. To identify the causes of this homogeneity, a subgroup analysis and meta-regression analysis were conducted based on the moderator variables.
The higher effect size demonstrated by MA theses (g = 0.799) compared to journal articles (g = 0.298) suggests a potential publication bias, where more rigorous or conservative research venues might publish studies with less pronounced effects. This calls for more transparency and diversity in research reporting across different publication venues [72].
The contrasting findings on technology use (g = 0.932 without technology; g = 0.383 with technology) further extend the discourse on the role of technology in gamified learning environments. They suggest that the mere application of technology does not automatically enhance learning outcomes, echoing the need for a more nuanced understanding of technology integration in gamified education, considering factors such as the pedagogical alignment, learners’ technology literacy, and the appropriateness of the technology for the learning objectives [73].
From a practical standpoint, educators and curriculum designers should take note of the significant differences in effects based on the types of gamification elements used. Specifically, the results suggest that incorporating badges/rewards rather than points/scores might lead to more successful outcomes in English language learning settings [65].
The absence of significant influence of factors such as grade, number of participants, weeks, sessions, and number of gaming elements on the outcomes aligns with previous research indicating that the successful implementation of gamification may be more about the quality of the design rather than the quantity of gamified elements [16].
Furthermore, the application of gamification across different facets of language learning without significant differences in effects validates its versatility as an instructional tool. However, educators should note that specific subcomponents of English proficiency (e.g., vocabulary, listening, and writing) may respond differently to gamification.
However, these findings should be interpreted in light of certain limitations. The scope of studies included in this meta-analysis might limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or populations. Additionally, there might be other unmeasured variables or potential confounders that were not accounted for in this study, which could have influenced the observed effects. Moreover, it is worth noting that the single case study related to reading resulted in a negative effect size (g = −0.256), which warrants further investigation.
As the effectiveness of gamified learning continues to be explored, it is hoped that future research will provide further insight into how to maximize the potential of gamification in language learning and other educational contexts. Furthermore, more nuanced research investigating the differential impact of gamification on specific language skills is recommended.
These conclusions have important implications for educators and researchers in the field of English language learning. Given the emerging evidence of the benefits of gamification, educators are encouraged to incorporate such strategies into their teaching methods. Additionally, the suggested inclusion of non-English studies in future systematic review and meta-analyses would offer a more comprehensive perspective on the global impact and potential of gamification in language learning.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; methodology, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; software, J.-Y.L.; validation, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; formal analysis, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; investigation, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; resources, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; data curation, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; writing—original draft preparation, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; writing—review and editing, J.-Y.L. and M.B.; visualization, J.-Y.L.; supervision, J.-Y.L.; project administration, J.-Y.L. and M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A. Coding Results I

StudyPTEDSLTUGPWSS/WDV
Kim (2014) [18]JournalQuasiUniversityYes143815302Achievement
Lee (2019) [42]JournalQuasiPrimaryYes63012--Speaking
Lee (2022) [11]JournalQuasiUniversityYes128715302Reading, Writing
Laffey (2022) [19]JournalQuasiUniversityYes14.592215--Writing
Kim (2023) [54]ThesisQuasiPrimaryYes540461.5Vocabulary
Baek (2021) [55]ThesisQuasiPrimaryNo45212242Vocabulary
Ahn (2019) [41]ThesisPrePrimaryNo3.514810101Listening
Jeon (2021) [56]ThesisQuasiSecondaryYes1246681.33Vocabulary
PT: Publication Type, ED: Experimental Design, SL: School Level, TU: Technology Use, G: Grade, P: Participants, W: Weeks, S: Sessions, S/W: Sessions per Week, DV: Dependent Variable.

Appendix B. Coding Results II

StudyA/CP/SL/SFLCM/CS/FB/RNGE
Kim (2014) [18]OOOO-O---5
Lee (2019) [42]-O-------1
Lee (2022) [11]-OO---O--3
Laffey (2022) [19]-O--O-OO-4
Kim (2023) [54]--OO-----2
Baek (2021) [55]O-O---OOO5
Ahn (2019) [41]-OO-OO-OO6
Jeon (2021) [56]-OO-OOO-O6
A/C: Avatar/Character, P/S: Point/Score, L/S: Leaderboard/Scoreboard, F: Feedback, L: Level, C: Collaboration, M/C: Mission/Challenge, S/F: Story/Fiction, B/R: Badge/Reward, NGE: Number of Gaming Elements.

References

  1. Zimmerman, E. Position statement: Manifesto for a ludic century. In The Gameful Word: Approaches, Issues, Applications; Walz, S.P., Deterding, S., Eds.; The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2015; pp. 19–22. [Google Scholar]
  2. Bai, S.; Hew, K.F.; Huang, B. Does gamification improve student learning outcome? Evidence from a meta-analysis and synthesis of qualitative data in educational contexts. Educ. Res. Rev. 2020, 30, 100322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Gee, J.P. What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy; Palgrave Macmillan: New York, NY, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  4. Burke, B. Gamify: How Gamification Motivates People to Do Extraordinary Things; Bibliomotion: New York, NY, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  5. Le-Thi, D.; Dörnyei, Z.; Pellicer-Sánchez, A. Increasing the effectiveness of teaching L2 formulaic sequences through motivational strategies and mental imagery: A classroom experiment. Lang. Teach. 2020, 26, 136216882091312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Philp, J.; Duchesne, S. Exploring engagement in tasks in the language classroom. Annu. Rev. Appl. Linguist. 2016, 36, 50–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Berns, A.; Isla-Montes, J.; Palomo-Duarte, M.; Dodero, J. Motivation, students’ needs and learning outcomes: A hybrid game-based app for enhanced language learning. SpringerPlus 2016, 5, 1305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  8. Hung, H. Clickers in the flipped classroom: Bring your own device (BYOD) to promote student learning. Interact. Learn. Environ. 2017, 25, 983–995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Purgina, M.; Mozgovoy, M.; Mozgovoy, M. WordBricks: Mobile technology and visual grammar formalism for gamification of natural language grammar acquisition. J. Educ. 2019, 58, 073563311983301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Cardoso, W.; Rueb, A.; Grimshaw, J. Can an interactive digital game help French learners improve their pronunciation? In CALL in a Climate of Change: Adapting to Turbulent Global Conditions—Short Papers from EUROCALL 2017; Borthwick, K., Bradley, L., Thouësny, S., Eds.; Research-Publishing.Net: Dublin, Ireland, 2017; pp. 67–72. [Google Scholar]
  11. Lee, J. Effects of using gamification-based quiz on recalling formulaic sequences. Int. Promot. Agency Cult. Technol. 2022, 8, 589–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Munday, P. The case for using Duolingo as part of the language classroom experience. RIED 2016, 19, 83–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Koivisto, J.; Hamari, J. The rise of motivational information systems: A review of gamification research. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 2019, 45, 191–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Sailer, M.; Hense, J.U.; Mayr, S.K.; Mandl, H. How gamification motivates: An experimental study of the effects of specific game design elements on psychological need satisfaction. Comput. Hum. 2017, 69, 371–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Dignan, A. Game Frame: Using Games as a Strategy for Success; Free Press: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  16. Hanus, M.D.; Fox, J. Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Comput. Educ. 2014, 80, 152–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Toda, A.M.; Klock, A.C.T.; Oliveira, W.; Palomino, P.T.; Rodrigues, L.; Shi, L.; Bittencourt, I.; Gasparini, I.; Isotani, S.; Cristea, A.I. Analysing gamification elements in educational environments using an existing Gamification taxonomy. Smart Learn. Environ. 2019, 16, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Kim, S. Effects of a gamified learning environment on learning experiences: A case study of a general English course using relative evaluation policy. MALL 2014, 17, 68–94. [Google Scholar]
  19. Laffey, D. Gamification and EFL writing: Effects on student motivation. ETAK 2022, 28, 23–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Toda, A.M.; Valle, P.H.D.; Isotani, S. The dark side of gamification: An overview of negative effects of gamification in education. In Higher Education for All: From Challenges to Novel Technology-Enhanced Solutions; Cristea, A., Bittencourt, I., Lima, F., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 143–156. [Google Scholar]
  21. Lee, J.; Hammer, J. Gamification in education: What, how, why bother? Acad. Exch. Q. 2011, 15, 146. [Google Scholar]
  22. Kwon, B.; Lyou, C. The meta-analysis or domestic gamification research: Status and suggest. Humancon 2015, 39, 97–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Ministry of Education. 2022 Revised English Language Curriculum; Ministry of Education: Sejong, Republic of Korea, 2022.
  24. Kim, S.; Lee, Y. Development of TPACK-P education program for improving technological pedagogical content knowledge of pre-service teacher. J. Korea Soc. Comput. Inf. 2017, 22, 141–152. [Google Scholar]
  25. Yi, S.; Lee, Y. The effects of software education teaching efficacy (SE-TE) of in-service teachers on backward design based TPACK-P teachers’ training program. KACE 2019, 22, 113–121. [Google Scholar]
  26. Kim, Y.M. Pre-service English teachers’ mobile information and communication technology-technological pedagogy and content knowledge. FLE 2018, 25, 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Borenstein, M.; Hedges, L.V.; Higgins, J.P.T.; Rothstein, H.R. Introduction to Meta-Analysis; John Wiley & Sons: West Sussex, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  28. Morrison, A.; Polisena, J.; Husereau, D.; Moulton, K.; Clark, M.; Fiander, M.; Mierzwinski-Urban, M.; Clifford, T.; Hutton, B.; Rabb, D. The effect of English-language restriction on systematic review-based meta-analyses: A systematic review of empirical studies. Int. J. Technol. Assess. Health Care 2012, 28, 138–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Pieper, D.; Puljak, L. Language restrictions in systematic reviews should not be imposed in the search strategy but in the eligibility criteria if necessary. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2021, 132, 146–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Card, N.A. Applied Meta-Analysis for Social Science Research; Guildord Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  31. Egger, M.; Smith, G.D.; Schneider, M.; Minder, C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997, 315, 629–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  32. Sutton, A.J.; Duval, S.J.; Tweedie, R.L.; Abrams, K.R.; Jones, D.R. Empirical assessment of effect of publication bias on meta-analyses. BMJ 2000, 320, 1574–1577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. BMJ 2009, 339, b2535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Huang, R.; Ritzhaupt, A.D.; Sommer, M.; Zhu, J.; Stephen, A.; Valle, N.; Hampton, J.; Li, J. The impact of gamification in educational settings on student learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 2020, 68, 1875–1901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Sailer, M.; Hommer, L. The gamification of learning: A meta-analysis. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2020, 32, 77–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Yıldırım, İ.; Şen, S. The effects of gamification on students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. Interact. Learn. Environ. 2021, 29, 1301–1318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Brown, J.D. Understanding Research in Second Language Learning: A Teacher’s Guide to Statistics and Research Design; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1988. [Google Scholar]
  38. Dichev, C.; Dicheva, D. Gamifying education: What is known, what is believed and what remains uncertain: A critical review. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 2017, 14, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Kim, J.; Castelli, D.M. Effects of gamification on behavioral change in education: A meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Landers, R.N. Developing a theory of gamified learning: Linking serious games and gamification of learning. Simul. Gaming 2014, 45, 752–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ahn, Y. The Effects of a Phonemic Awareness Activity Class with Gamification on English Phonemic Awareness and Affective Domains in Elementary School Students, and Observation for the Influence of the Native Language on Phonemic Awareness. Master’s Thesis, Cyber Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  42. Lee, S. The effects of Gamification-based Artificial Intelligence Chatbot activities on elementary English learners’ speaking performance and affective domains. Korean Soc. Elem. Engl. Educ. 2019, 25, 75–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Little, R.J.A.; Rubin, D.B. Statistical Analysis with Missing Data, 3rd ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  44. Schafer, J.; Graham, J.W. Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychol. Methods 2002, 7, 147–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Allison, P.D. Missing Data; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  46. Rubin, D.B. Multiple Imputations for Nonresponse in Surveys; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
  47. Cummings, G. Understanding the New Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analysis; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  48. Cohen, J. Statistical Power for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1988. [Google Scholar]
  49. Ferguson, C.J. An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Prof. Psychol. Res. Pract. 2009, 40, 532–538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  50. Lakens, D. Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Front. Psychol. 2013, 4, 863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Plonsky, L.; Oswald, F.L. How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Lang. Learn. 2014, 64, 878–912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Sawilowsky, S.S. New effect size rules of thumb. J. Mod. Appl. Stat. Methods 2009, 8, 597–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Higgins, J.P.T.; Thompson, S.G.; Deeks, J.J.; Altman, D.G. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ 2003, 327, 557–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Kim, H. A Study of the Improvement of Elementary Students’ English Vocabulary Through Gamification Using Kahoot Application. Master’s Thesis, Woosuk University, Jeonbuk, Republic of Korea, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  55. Baek, J. The Effects of Using Gamification on Primary School Students’ Learning English: Based on Students’ Acquisition of English Vocabulary and Their Affective Attitudes on English. Master’s Thesis, Chinju National University of Education, Gyeongnam, Republic of Korea, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  56. Jeon, W. The Effects of Gamification Using Classcard and Class123 on the English Vocabulary Proficiency and the Affective Domain for High School Students. Master’s Thesis, Cyber Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  57. Begg, C.B.; Mazumdar, M. Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics 1994, 50, 1088–1101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Duval, S.; Tweedie, R. Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics 2000, 56, 455–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Rosenthal, R. The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychol. Bull. 1979, 86, 638–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Dickersin, K. The existence of publication bias and risk factors for its occurrence. JAMA 1990, 263, 1385–1389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Dwan, K.; Gamble, C.; Williamson, P.R.; Kirkham, J.J. Systematic review of the empirical evidence of study publication bias and outcome reporting bias: An updated review. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e66844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  62. Franco, A.; Malhotra, N.; Simonovits, G. Publication bias in the social sciences: Unlocking the file drawer. Science 2014, 345, 1502–1505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Norman, G. Data dredging, salami-slicing, and other successful strategies to ensure rejection: Twelve tips on how to not get your paper published. Adv. Health Sci. Educ. 2014, 19, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Hamari, J.; Shernoff, D.J.; Rowe, E.; Coller, B.; Asbell-Clarke, J.; Edwards, T. Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement, flow and immersion in game-based learning. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2016, 54, 170–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Landers, R.N.; Bauer, K.N.; Callan, R.C.; Armstrong, M.B. Psychological theory and the gamification of learning. In Gamification in Education and Business; Reiners, T., Wood, L.C., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. 165–186. [Google Scholar]
  66. Hew, K.F.; Huang, B.; Chu, K.W.S.; Chiu, D.K.; Lo, C.K. Engaging Asian students through game mechanics: Findings from two experiment studies. Comput. Educ. 2016, 92, 221–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Warschauer, M. Information literacy in the laptop classroom. Teach. Coll. Rec. 2008, 109, 2511–2540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Hamari, J.; Koivisto, J.; Sarsa, H. Does gamification work? A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. In Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Waikoloa, HI, USA, 6–9 January 2014. [Google Scholar]
  69. Nation, I.S.P. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  70. Stoller, F.L. Establishing a theoretical foundation for project-based learning in second and foreign language contexts. In Project-Based Second and Foreign Language Education: Past, Present, and Future; Beckett, G.H., Miller, P.C., Eds.; Information Age Publishing: Greenwich, CT, USA, 2006; pp. 19–40. [Google Scholar]
  71. Peterson, M. Computer Games and Language Learning; Palgrave Macmillan: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  72. Song, F.; Hooper, L.; Loke, Y.K. Publication bias: What is it? How do we measure it? How do we avoid it? Open Access J. Clin. Trials. 2013, 5, 71–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  73. Bower, M. Technology-mediated learning theory. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2019, 50, 1035–1048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 15 11325 g001 550
Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart of the article screening process.
Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart of the article screening process.
Sustainability 15 11325 g001
Sustainability 15 11325 g002 550
Figure 2. Forest plot [11,18,19,41,42,54,55,56].
Figure 2. Forest plot [11,18,19,41,42,54,55,56].
Sustainability 15 11325 g002
Sustainability 15 11325 g003 550
Figure 3. Funnel plot.
Figure 3. Funnel plot.
Sustainability 15 11325 g003
Table
Table 1. Taxonomy of gaming elements (summarized from the findings of Toda et al. [17]).
Table 1. Taxonomy of gaming elements (summarized from the findings of Toda et al. [17]).
ElementsDescription
Performance/measurement1. AcknowledgementRewards learners for specific tasks, e.g., badges for completed problems.
2. LevelHierarchical system providing new advantages as learners progress.
3. ProgressionGuides users about their advancement in the environment.
4. PointBasic feedback method, usually through scores or experience points.
5. StatsVisual information about the learner’s performance or overall environment.
Ecological1. ChanceInvolves uncertainty in outcomes.
2. Imposed ChoiceRequires users to make decisions for progress.
3. EconomyRepresents transactions within the environment.
4. RarityInvolves limited resources to stimulate specific goals.
5. Time PressureApplies time constraints but can disengage users.
Social1. CompetitionInvolves user challenges to attain common goals.
2. CooperationEncourages collaboration towards shared objectives.
3. ReputationRelates to social status titles within a community.
4. Social PressureReflects the influence of social interactions on behavior.
Personal1. NoveltyUpdates within the environment to maintain user engagement.
2. ObjectivesGoals providing a purpose for task completion.
3. PuzzleCognitive challenges within the environment.
4. RenovationOpportunities for learners to redo tasks.
5. SensationEnhances the experience using sensory stimulation. Lack of these may lead to demotivation.
Fictional1. NarrativeDescribes event sequences, influenced by user decisions.
2. StorytellingConveys the environment’s story, supporting the narrative.
Table
Table 2. Coding scheme.
Table 2. Coding scheme.
CategoryVariables
1. Publication Type(1) journal article (2) MA thesis
2. Experimental Design(1) quasi-experimental (2) pre-experimental
3. School Level(1) primary school (2) secondary school (3) university
4. Technology Use(1) used (2) not used
5. Gaming Element(1) avatar/character (2) point/score (3) leaderboard/scoreboard (4) feedback
(5) level (6) collaboration (7) mission/challenge (8) story/fiction (9) badge/reward
6. GradeRaw data
7. Number of ParticipantsRaw data
8. WeeksRaw data
9. SessionsRaw data
10. Sessions per WeeksRaw data
11. Number of Gaming ElementsRaw data
12. Dependent Variables(1) listening (2) speaking (3) reading (4) writing (5) vocabulary (6) achievement
Table
Table 3. Effect size data by moderators.
Table 3. Effect size data by moderators.
ModeratorEffect Size and 95% Confidence IntervalHeterogeneity
NkgSE95% CIZpQdfp
Publication
Type		Journal Article32470.2980.180−0.055~0.6501.6570.0986.42610.011 *
Thesis28640.7990.0830.638~0.9619.6820.000
Experimental
Design		Quasi-experimental462100.4750.1610.160~0.7902.9530.0032.95310.103
Pre-experimental14810.7780.0930.595~0.9618.3250.000
School LevelPrimary27040.8010.0940.616~0.9868.4840.0005.58920.061
Secondary4610.6240.2970.042~1.2072.1020.036
Tertiary29460.2700.205−0.132~0.6721.3160.180
Technology
Use		Yes41090.3830.1490.091~0.6742.5720.0104.17110.041 *
No20020.9320.2240.494~1.3704.1710.000
* p < 0.05.
Table
Table 4. Effect size data by gaming elements.
Table 4. Effect size data by gaming elements.
ModeratorEffect Size and 95% Confidence IntervalHeterogeneity
NkgSE95% CIZpQdfp
Avatar/
Character		Yes27640.6790.1970.292~1.0653.4410.0010.93110.335
No33470.4150.1890.044~0.7862.1930.028
Point/
Score		Yes37080.3400.1610.025~0.6552.1170.0346.23510.013 *
No24030.8400.1190.606~1.0737.0550.000
Leaderboard/
Scoreboard		Yes53680.5650.1660.241~0.8903.4120.0010.66010.417
No7430.3370.227−0.109 ~0.7821.4820.138
FeedbackYes11630.4260.1850.064~0.7882.3060.0210.21810.640
No49480.5450.1760.201~0.8893.0140.002
LevelYes36840.5020.2520.008~0.9961.9920.0460.01010.921
No24270.5320.1690.204~0.8603.1770.001
CollaborationYes27040.5910.1470.303~0.8794.0270.0000.09110.763
No34070.5100.2270.065~0.9542.2470.025
Mission/
Challenge		Yes29460.4960.256−0.006~0.9981.9360.0530.21010.647
No31650.6250.1190.392~0.8585.2480.000
Story/
Fiction		Yes24440.7130.2110.300~1.1253.3850.0011.19610.274
No36670.4130.1750.070~0.7572.3590.018
Badge/
Reward		Yes24630.8320.1340.569~1.0946.2070.0005.08810.024 *
No36480.3510.1650.027~0.6762.1250.034
* p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. Results of the meta-regression analysis.
Table 5. Results of the meta-regression analysis.
VariablebSE95% CIZp
Intercept−13.855844.5029−101.0800~73.3683−0.31130.756
Grade0.01150.3317−0.6387~0.6616−0.03450.973
No. of participants0.00340.0313−0.0579~0.06480.10980.913
Weeks1.12663.2314−5.2069~7.46010.34860.747
Sessions−0.73372.1939−5.0336~3.5662−0.33440.738
Sessions per week9.104728.205−45.8144~64.02380.32490.745
No. of gaming elements0.17890.2491−0.3093~0.66720.71830.473
Table
Table 6. Effect size data by dependent variables.
Table 6. Effect size data by dependent variables.
ModeratorEffect Size and 95% Confidence IntervalHeterogeneity
NkgSE95% CIZpQdfp
DV1Receptive44970.5220.1920.145~0.8992.7140.0070.02010.888
Productive16140.5590.1830.201~0.9183.0610.002
DV2Spoken17820.7600.0900.583~0.9378.4000.0002.08710.149
Written43290.4730.1770.127~0.8192.6790.007
DV3Listening14810.7780.0930.595~0.9618.3250.00023.88550.000 *
Speaking3010.4900.361−0.217~1.1971.3580.175
Reading871−0.2560.213−0.674~0.162−1.1990.231
Writing13130.5270.2610.015~1.0392.0180.044
Vocabulary13830.8750.1980.486~1.2634.4130.000
Achievement7620.2740.226−0.169 ~0.7171.2100.226
* p < 0.05.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lee, J.-Y.; Baek, M. Effects of Gamification on Students’ English Language Proficiency: A Meta-Analysis on Research in South Korea. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411325

AMA Style

Lee J-Y, Baek M. Effects of Gamification on Students’ English Language Proficiency: A Meta-Analysis on Research in South Korea. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):11325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411325

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lee, Je-Young, and Minkyung Baek. 2023. "Effects of Gamification on Students’ English Language Proficiency: A Meta-Analysis on Research in South Korea" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 11325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411325

APA Style

Lee, J. -Y., & Baek, M. (2023). Effects of Gamification on Students’ English Language Proficiency: A Meta-Analysis on Research in South Korea. Sustainability, 15(14), 11325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411325

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop