Facilitating the Production of 3D-Printed Spare Parts in the Design of Plastic Parts: A Design Requirement Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Selecting and Defining Requirements
2.2. Defining Manufacturing Capabilities
2.3. Setting up an Illustrative Case
3. Results
3.1. Design Requirements
3.2. Manufacturing Capabilities
3.3. Illustrative Case
- For the floor nozzle bumper, the part requirements for Shape and Detail are easy to achieve. There is no overhang or other complex geometry, and the part details range between 1 and 2 mm. This is well within the capabilities of additive manufacturing, as all manufacturing methods can print a detail size of around 1 mm. Therefore, these requirements are rated green.
- For the floor nozzle brush, the part requirements for Multi-material are almost impossible to achieve. The part has numerous subcomponents made from different materials and assembled through moving connections. The brush could be printed as separate components up to a certain point, but the overmoulded bristles will be impossible to replicate with additive manufacturing. Therefore, this requirement is rated red.
- For the dustbin inlet seal, the part requirements for Flexibility and Elasticity will be difficult to achieve. The part requires the properties of a soft and stretchable elastomer, as it needs to stretch and compress during installation and removal. Both SLA and FDM printing offer soft and stretchable elastomers; however, without further testing, it is not possible to verify whether these materials can meet these specific part requirements.
- For the wheel suspension, the specific combination of part requirements will be challenging to achieve. The snap-fits require a tailored combination of strength, flexibility, accuracy, and surface finish in a localised section of the part. Conversely, the section of the part that connects to the rotating wheel axle requires very high abrasion resistance and a smooth surface finish. Even if each requirement is feasible separately, the designer should still be mindful of the trade-offs and synergies between the part requirements, as reflected in the concluding remarks.
4. Discussion
- The original part is designed to be suitable for both injection moulding and additive manufacturing;
- Two different yet interchangeable part designs are made, with the original part optimised for injection moulding and the spare part optimised for additive manufacturing.
Limitations and Recommendations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Design Requirement | Structural Properties | Material Properties |
---|---|---|
Geometry | ||
Shape |
| |
Detail |
| |
Accuracy and tolerances | ||
Configuration | ||
Water-/airtightness |
| |
See also: Accuracy and Tolerances, Surface finish | ||
Multi-material | ||
Surface finish |
| |
Transparency | ||
See also: Surface finish | ||
Mechanical requirements | ||
Strength | ||
Flexibility (bend) | ||
Elasticity (stretch/ compress) | ||
Impact resistance | ||
Abrasion resistance | ||
See also: Surface finish | ||
Fatigue resistance | ||
Creep resistance |
| |
Thermal requirements | ||
Heat resistance | ||
Cold resistance | ||
Chemical requirements | ||
Water resistance | ||
See also: Detail, Surface finish | ||
UV resistance | ― | |
Chemical resistance | ||
See also: Detail, Surface finish | ||
Food safety | ||
See also: Detail, Surface finish, Chemical resistance |
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Data Quality Assessment | Example | ||
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1 | High- quality | There are sufficient data on structural and material properties to define the manufacturing capabilities for this design requirement. The material data are retrieved from standardised testing procedures (ASTM/ISO). | SLS has an accuracy of ±0.3% |
2 | Medium- quality | There are insufficient data on structural properties to fully define the manufacturing capabilities for this requirement. However, a general assessment can be made using the limited material data from standardised testing methods (ASTM/ISO). | Elastic resins make parts with stretchable and rubber-like properties (50D Shore hardness). |
3 | Low- quality | There are insufficient data on structural and material properties to define the manufacturing capabilities for this requirement. Claims are made on material capabilities, but the available data are qualitative and unofficial. | This resilient grade of FDM nylon is highly resistant to shocks and fatigue. |
4 | No data | There are no data available, the requirement is rarely mentioned. | Insufficient data. |
Capabilities of Each AM Method Compared to IM (See Section 3.2) | Printability Score for Each Part Requirement (See Section 3.3) | |
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Green | The capabilities of the AM method are similar to or better than IM. | The part requirement can likely be met with standard materials and post-processing. Likely no design adjustments or verification steps are needed. |
Yellow | The capabilities of the AM method are somewhat inferior to IM (limitations to functionality or performance, especially in the high-end range). | Meeting the part requirement requires more specialised materials and/or extensive processing. Minor design adjustments or verification steps would be needed. |
Red | The capabilities of the AM method are considerably inferior compared to IM, or the requirement is impossible to achieve with this AM method. | The part requirement is (almost) impossible to achieve. Major design changes or verification steps are needed. |
Grey | The manufacturing capabilities cannot be assessed as data quality or availability is too low. | The manufacturing capabilities cannot be assessed as data quality or availability is too low. |
Design Requirement | Structural Properties Example | Material Properties Example |
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Geometry | ||
Shape |
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Detail |
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See also: Accuracy and Tolerances | ||
Accuracy and tolerances |
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Configuration | ||
Water-/airtightness |
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See also: Accuracy and Tolerances, Surface finish | ||
Multi-material |
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Surface finish |
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Transparency |
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See also: Surface finish | ||
Mechanical requirements | ||
Strength |
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Flexibility (bend) |
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Elasticity (stretch/compress) |
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Impact resistance |
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Abrasion resistance |
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See also: Surface finish | ||
Fatigue resistance |
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Creep resistance |
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Thermal requirements | ||
Heat resistance |
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Cold resistance |
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Chemical requirements | ||
Water resistance |
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See also: Detail, Surface finish | ||
UV resistance | ― |
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Chemical resistance |
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See also: Detail, Surface finish | ||
Food safety |
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See also: Detail, Surface finish, Chemical resistance |
Design Requirement | Injection Moulding (IM) | Stereo- Lithography (SLA) | Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) | Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) |
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Geometry | ||||
Shape 1 | High form freedom, draft needed. | High form freedom, but support needed. 1 | High form freedom, no support needed. 1 | Good form freedom, but support is needed. 1 |
Detail 1 | Min. wall size: 0.8–1.2 mm, min. feature size: 0.4–0.6 mm. | Min. wall/ feature size: 0.1–0.4 mm. 1 | Min. wall/ feature size: 0.8 mm. 1 | Min. wall/ feature size: 1.1–1.5 mm. 1 |
Accuracy and tolerances 1 | Typically ±0.25 mm, can go as low as ±0.025–0.125 mm. | Accuracy of ±0.15% (min. 0.01–0.03 mm) for industrial machines. 1 | Accuracy of ±0.3% (min. 0.3 mm) for industrial machines. 1 | Accuracy of ±0.15% (min. 0.2 mm) for industrial machines. 1 |
Configuration | ||||
Water/air tightness 1 | Water- and airtight when using the recommended wall thicknesses. | Properly printed parts are waterproof and airtight. 1 | Parts have a porous surface and need additional post-processing. 1 | Parts have a porous microstructure and need additional post-processing. 1 |
Multi-material 1 | Multiple options (e.g., insert-, 2K-, and overmoulding). | Only on lab-scale. 1 | Only on lab-scale. 1 | Multiple-material extrusion is possible. 1 |
Surface finish 1 | Smooth finish possible (Ra = 0.012–0.7 µm for parts with a polished finish). | Smooth finish possible (Ra ≈ 0.4–2.3 µm). 1 | Rougher finish, even after post-processing (Generally around Ra ≈ 2.3–5.7 µm). 1 | Rougher finish, even after post-processing. Large variations (Ra = 0.9–22.5 µm, side planes are roughest). 1 |
Transparency 1–2 | Wide range from opaque to fully transparent | Wide range from opaque to fully transparent. 2 | All parts are opaque. 1 | Ranges from opaque to translucent. Visible layer lines, part needs post-processing. 2 |
Mechanical requirements | ||||
Strength 1 | Various high-strength polymers are available (e.g., PEI, PEK); tensile strength around 92–120 MPa. Strength is isotropic. | Generally brittle materials, but stronger resins exist (e.g., tough and durable resins), tensile strength around 61–65 MPa. Strength is near-isotropic. 1 | Generally strong materials, tensile strength around 29–69 MPa. Printed parts are not as strong as IM. Strength is slightly anisotropic. 1 | Strong materials (e.g., PEI, PC), tensile strength around 48–81 MPa. Strength is highly anisotropic due to limited layer adhesion. 1 |
Flexibility 2 | Ranging from stiff plastic to hard rubber to very soft elastomer polymers; Young’s modulus between 0.2–50 MPa. | Ranging from stiff polymeric to hard rubber-like to softer silicone-like materials, Young’s modulus between <1–10 MPa. 2 | Stiff polymeric to hard rubber-like materials available, Young’s modulus between 5.3–131 MPa. 2 | Ranging from stiff plastic to hard rubber-like to softer silicone-like materials, Young’s modulus between 15.3–205 MPa. 2 |
Elasticity 2 | There are various polymers with very high elongation at break (80–1780%). Stretch is isotropic. | There are resins with relatively high elongation at break (160–300%). Stretch is near-isotropic. 2 | There are powders with high elongation at break (60–500%). Stretch is anisotropic. 2 | There are filaments with very high elongation at break (150–950%). Stretch is anisotropic (risk of layer delamination). 2 |
Impact resistance 2 | There are various impact-resistant polymers (e.g., PAI, HIPS); notched impact strength >500 J/m. | Engineering resins (e.g., tough, durable, rigid PU) have good impact resistance; notched impact strength between 17–375 J/m. 2 | Lower impact strength due to porous surface (needs post-processing). There are various impact-resistant powders (e.g., PA11, PAx); notched impact strength between 32–71 J/m. | Lower impact strength due to bad layer adhesion. There are various impact-resistant filaments (e.g., ABS, PC-ABS); notched impact strength ranging between 32.2–241 J/m. |
Abrasion resistance 3 | There are various wear-resistant (e.g., PA) and self-lubricating (e.g., UHMW-PE) polymers available. | Insufficient data. Claims of high wear resistance for durable resins. 3 | Insufficient data. Claims of good wear resistance for some materials (e.g., PA, PEEK). 3 | Insufficient data. Claims of high wear resistance for some materials (nylon, PEKK). 3 |
Fatigue resistance 3 | There are various fatigue-resistant polymers (e.g., POM, PEEK). Defects (e.g., knit lines) can affect fatigue strength | Insufficient data. Claims of good fatigue properties for some materials (e.g., Accura resins). 3 | Insufficient data. Claims of good fatigue properties for some materials (e.g., PP). 3 | Insufficient data. Claims of good fatigue properties for some materials (e.g., PA, PEEK). Needs post-processing to offset layer adhesion /surface defects. 3 |
Creep resistance 3–4 | There are various creep-resistant polymers (e.g., PC) | Insufficient data. Common resins may creep, but some resins (e.g., rigid ceramic resins) claim to be more creep-resistant. 3 | Insufficient data. Additives are said to give a material a higher creep resistance. 4 | Insufficient data. Claims of filaments being more susceptible to creep due to their low melting point. 3 |
Thermal requirements | ||||
Heat resistance 1 | There are multiple heat-resistant polymers available (e.g., PAI, PEEK), service temperature between 161–260 °C. | Generally low heat resistance, but there are heat-resistant resins with heat deflection temperature between 200–300 °C (might require thermal curing). 1 | All materials are heat-resistant, service temperature typically between 150–185 °C, but can go up to over 300 °C. 1 | General service temperature between 50–120 ॰C. More heat-resistant filaments (e.g., PC, PEI) have an HDT between 133–214 ॰C. 1 |
Cold resistance 4 | Difficult to determine, but most engineering plastics besides PP and PET are well suited to temperatures below zero. | Insufficient data. In experimental testing, strong resin was unaffected by prolonged exposure below zero. | Insufficient data. | Insufficient data. Essentium claims their Altitude filament can withstand −60 °C. |
Chemical requirements | ||||
Water resistance 1 | There are various polymers (e.g., HDPE, PP) with little to no water absorption (<0.1%). | Virtually no porosity. There are various materials with low water absorption (<0.1–0.35%). 1 | Additional finishing is required to offset surface porosity. Most powders have low water absorption (around/below 0.1%). 1 | Additional finishing is required to offset layer gaps. Various filaments (e.g., PETG, PP) have low water absorption (between 0.23–1%). 1 |
UV resistance 3 | A few polymers have UV resistance of tens of years (e.g., PEI, PAI). | Insufficient data. Resins are sensitive to UV degradation (embrittlement and yellowing). 3 | Insufficient data. Claims of UV resistance for some powders (e.g., nylon, TPU). 3 | Insufficient data. Claims of UV resistance for some filaments (e.g., ASA, PVDF). 3 |
Chemical resistance (household) 2 | There are various polymers with excellent chemical resistance (e.g., PEEK, PP). | Most resins have good chemical resistance for most household chemicals. 2 | Most materials (e.g., PA, PP) have good chemical resistance for most household chemicals. 2 | Most engineering filaments (e.g., PP) have good chemical resistance for most household chemicals. 2 |
Food safety 1 | There are various food-grade polymers (e.g., PC, PP), parts need to adhere to strict production regulations. | Resins are not food-safe due to their toxicity. Coating is insufficient to guarantee food safety. 1 | Certified food-grade printing of PA11/12 is possible, but options are limited. 1 | Food-safe filaments are available, but there is no certified production process. Layer lines pose a risk for bacteria buildup. 1 |
1. Floor Nozzle Bumper | 2. Floor Nozzle LED Cover | 3. Floor Nozzle Rotating Brush | 4. Dustbin Container | 5. Floor Nozzle Brush Locking Cap | |||||||||||
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Original Material | PP | PC | Nylon + PP + POM | Glass-Filled ABS | ABS | ||||||||||
SLA Material * | Durable (PP-Like) resin | Clear resin | Durable (PP-Like) resin | Clear resin | Durable (PP-Like) resin | ||||||||||
SLS Material | PA11 | PA11 | PA12 | PA11 | PA11 | ||||||||||
FDM Material | ABS | Clear PETG | Nylon | Clear PC | Nylon | ||||||||||
AM Method | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM |
Shape | |||||||||||||||
Detail | |||||||||||||||
Accuracy and tolerances | |||||||||||||||
Water/air-tightness | |||||||||||||||
Multi-material | |||||||||||||||
Surface finish | |||||||||||||||
Transparency | |||||||||||||||
Strength | |||||||||||||||
Flexibility | |||||||||||||||
Elasticity | |||||||||||||||
Impact resistance | |||||||||||||||
Abrasion resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Fatigue resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Creep resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Heat resistance | |||||||||||||||
Cold resistance | |||||||||||||||
Water resistance | |||||||||||||||
UV resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Chemical resistance | |||||||||||||||
Food safety | |||||||||||||||
Major part requirement(s) | — | Transparency Surface finish | Multi-material Abrasion resistance | Impact resistance Shape | Strength Flexibility Accuracy | ||||||||||
Concluding remarks | The shape, detail, and semi-rigid flexibility/flexural strength should be achievable with all printing methods. | Limited printing options as full transparency is required for technical functioning. | Part complexity is too high. The bristles are not replicable with any printing method. | The inlet cavity’s complex shape combined with the transparency makes the part difficult to replicate with any printing method. | Printable, but the high flexural strength and accurate details will be difficult to achieve. |
6. Dustbin Inlet Seal | 7. Floor Nozzle Back Cable Cover | 8. Floor Nozzle Hinge | 9. Floor Nozzle Wheel | 10. Floor Nozzle Wheel Suspension | |||||||||||
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Original material | PDMS (Silicone) | ABS | POM + Metal Pin | PP + LDPE | PTFE (Teflon) | ||||||||||
SLA material * | Rebound resin | Tough (ABS-Like) resin | Durable (PP-Like) resin | Tough resin + Flexible resin | Durable (PP-Like) resin | ||||||||||
SLS material | TPU | PA12 | PA12 | PA12 + TPU | PA11 | ||||||||||
FDM material | TPE | Nylon | Nylon 66 | ABS + TPU | Nylon | ||||||||||
AM Method | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM | SLA | SLS | FDM |
Shape | |||||||||||||||
Detail | |||||||||||||||
Accuracy and tolerances | |||||||||||||||
Water/air-tightness | |||||||||||||||
Multi-material | |||||||||||||||
Surface finish | |||||||||||||||
Transparency | |||||||||||||||
Strength | |||||||||||||||
Flexibility | |||||||||||||||
Elasticity | |||||||||||||||
Impact resistance | |||||||||||||||
Abrasion resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Fatigue resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Creep resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Heat resistance | |||||||||||||||
Cold resistance | |||||||||||||||
Water resistance | |||||||||||||||
UV resistance † | |||||||||||||||
Chemical resistance | |||||||||||||||
Food safety | |||||||||||||||
Major part requirement(s) | Flexibility Elasticity Strength | Accuracy Impact resistance Strength | Surface finish Abrasion resistance Multi-material | Abrasion resistance Surface finish | Strength Flexibility | ||||||||||
Concluding remarks | The combination of part requirements for the (dis)- assembly process will be challenging to achieve, especially for SLS. | The part is printable but further testing is needed to see if the snap-fit strength and general impact strength are sufficient. | The metal pin makes the part more complex to print. For higher abrasion resistance, a different material or external lubrication might be needed. | The two different materials make the part more complex to print. Either a multi-material or multi-component part is needed. | The required flexural force and fatigue resistance for the snap-fits will be challenging to replicate for most printing methods. |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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van Oudheusden, A.; Faludi, J.; Balkenende, R. Facilitating the Production of 3D-Printed Spare Parts in the Design of Plastic Parts: A Design Requirement Review. Sustainability 2024, 16, 9203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219203
van Oudheusden A, Faludi J, Balkenende R. Facilitating the Production of 3D-Printed Spare Parts in the Design of Plastic Parts: A Design Requirement Review. Sustainability. 2024; 16(21):9203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219203
Chicago/Turabian Stylevan Oudheusden, Alma, Jeremy Faludi, and Ruud Balkenende. 2024. "Facilitating the Production of 3D-Printed Spare Parts in the Design of Plastic Parts: A Design Requirement Review" Sustainability 16, no. 21: 9203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219203
APA Stylevan Oudheusden, A., Faludi, J., & Balkenende, R. (2024). Facilitating the Production of 3D-Printed Spare Parts in the Design of Plastic Parts: A Design Requirement Review. Sustainability, 16(21), 9203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219203