Identifying Eating Occasion-Based Opportunities to Improve the Overall Diets of Australian Adolescents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Survey Methodology
2.2. Eating Occasions
2.3. Dietary Intake Data
2.4. Food Groups
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Energy and Nutrients at Each Eating Occasion
3.1.1. Breakfast
3.1.2. Lunch
3.1.3. Dinner
3.1.4. Other Eating Occasions Combined
3.2. Food Groups and Nutrient Contributions
3.2.1. Breakfast
3.2.2. Lunch
3.2.3. Dinner
3.2.4. Other Eating Occasions Combined
3.3. Percent Consumers of Aggregated Food Groups
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Eating Occasion 1 | Energy | Discretionary Energy | Saturated Fat | Free Sugars | Sodium | Calcium | Iron | Vitamin A | Magnesium |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Contribution to Total Daily Intake (% † ± SE *) | |||||||||
Breakfast | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 8.3 ± 0.6 | 12.2 ± 0.5 | 16.3 ± 0.8 | 13.5 ± 0.5 | 23.4 ± 0.8 | 23.0 ± 0.7 | 17.1 ± 0.8 | 18.7 ± 0.5 |
Lunch | 22.9 ± 0.6 | 20.6 ± 1.0 | 22.1 ± 0.8 | 17.3 ± 0.9 | 29.8 ± 0.8 | 17.8 ± 0.7 | 21.8 ± 0.6 | 18.2 ± 0.8 | 20.0 ± 0.5 |
Dinner | 32.2 ± 0.6 | 22.1 ± 1.0 | 32.7 ± 0.8 | 18.5 ± 0.9 | 32.3 ± 0.8 | 24.2 ± 0.7 | 33.3 ± 0.7 | 37.5 ± 1.0 | 29.6 ± 0.6 |
Other combined | 30.2 ± 0.7 | 48.2 ± 1.2 | 33.0 ± 0.9 | 47.5 ± 1.2 | 24.4 ± 0.8 | 34.6 ± 0.9 | 21.8 ± 0.7 | 27.1 ± 1.0 | 31.7 ± 0.7 |
Percent Consumer | Nutrient Density | ||||||||
Percentage of energy from nutrient ± SE * | Nutrient/1000 KJ ± SE * | ||||||||
% | % | % | % | mg | mg | mg | μg retinol equivalents | mg | |
Breakfast | 81.1 | 19.8 ± 1.1 | 9.6 ± 0.3 | 14.3 ± 0.7 | 277.4 ± 9.4 | 159.0 ± 5.0 | 2.1 ± 0.1 | 83.2 ± 5.9 | 44.1 ± 0.9 |
Lunch | 87.6 | 32.4 ± 1.3 | 11.1 ± 0.3 | 9.8 ± 0.5 | 414.8 ± 9.1 | 71.7 ± 2.5 | 1.1 ± 0.0 | 70.4 ± 6.0 | 29.5 ± 0.5 |
Dinner | 94.1 | 27.6 ± 1.3 | 12.5 ± 0.3 | 7.8 ± 0.4 | 330.3 ± 9.8 | 66.0 ± 2.5 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | 118.9 ± 8.8 | 30.2 ± 0.4 |
Other Combined | 99.2 | 57.0 ± 1.3 | 13.1 ± 0.3 | 24.0 ± 0.8 | 210.1 ± 6.0 | 109.7 ± 3.8 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 61.2 ± 4.3 | 39.5 ± 1.5 |
TOTAL | - | 38.4 ± 0.8 | 12.8 ± 0.2 | 14.0 ± 0.3 | 309.3 ± 4.6 | 93.4 ± 1.7 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | 78.0 ± 2.5 | 32.8 ± 0.3 |
Nutrient Density Index (% of daily nutrient/% of daily energy) ± SE * | |||||||||
Breakfast | 0.6 ± 0.1 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 1.7 ± 0.0 | 1.6 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | 1.3 ± 0.0 | |
Lunch | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 1.4 ± 0.0 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | |
Dinner | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 0.6 ± 0.0 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 1.1 ± 0.0 | 1.3 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | |
Other Combined | 1.8 ± 0.1 | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 1.8 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 0.0 |
Nutrient | Top Five Sub-Major Food Groups | Contribution to Total Daily Nutrient Intake (% † ± 95% MoE *) | Contribution to Total Daily Nutrient Intake by Eating Occasion 1 (% † ± 95% MoE *) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breakfast | Lunch | Dinner | Other Combined | |||
Energy | Regular breads, and bread rolls (plain/unfilled/untopped varieties) | 6.8 ± 1.0 | 1.9 ± 0.3 | 3.1 ± 0.6 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 1.1 ± 0.3 |
Potatoes | 4.8 ± 1.2 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 1.6 ± 0.8 | 2.6 ± 0.7 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | |
Dairy milk (cow, sheep and goat) | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 2.2 ± 0.4 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 1.8 ± 0.4 | |
Burgers | 4.2 ± 1.0 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 1.9 ± 0.7 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | |
Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts | 3.7 ± 1.0 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 2.5 ± 0.9 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 23.9 | 4.5 | 7.2 | 5.8 | 6.4 | |
Discretionary energy | Soft drinks, and flavoured mineral waters | 8.9 ± 1.5 | 0.1 ± 0.2 | 2.2 ± 0.7 | 2.5 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.9 |
Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts | 8.4 ± 2.2 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 1.2 | 0.8 ± 0.5 | 5.5 ± 1.7 | |
Potatoes | 8.4 ± 2.3 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 3.4 ± 2.0 | 3.8 ± 1.6 | 0.9 ± 0.5 | |
Pastries | 7.4 ± 1.9 | 0.4 ± 0.5 | 3.8 ± 1.5 | 1.7 ± 0.8 | 1.5 ± 0.7 | |
Chocolate and chocolate-based confectionery | 5.4 ± 1.5 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 4.9 ± 1.4 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 38.6 | 1.4 | 11.4 | 9.0 | 16.8 | |
Saturated fat | Dairy milk (cow, sheep and goat) | 8.2 ± 1.2 | 4.2 ± 0.7 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 3.4 ± 0.9 |
Cheese | 6.4 ± 1.1 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 2.5 ± 0.6 | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 2.1 ± 0.9 | |
Chocolate and chocolate-based confectionery | 5.0 ± 1.4 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 4.5 ± 1.3 | |
Pastries | 4.9 ± 1.3 | 0.2 ± 0.3 | 2.4 ± 0.9 | 1.2 ± 0.6 | 1.0 ± 0.5 | |
Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts | 4.8 ± 1.4 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.6 | 0.6 ± 0.4 | 3.3 ± 1.3 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 29.3 | 5.0 | 6.1 | 3.8 | 14.4 | |
Free sugars | Soft drinks, and flavoured mineral waters | 25.3 ± 4.2 | 0.4 ± 0.4 | 6.3 ± 2.0 | 7.2 ± 1.7 | 11.4 ± 2.7 |
Fruit and vegetable juices, and drinks | 13.7 ± 2.9 | 4.2 ± 1.4 | 2.5 ± 1.2 | 3.2 ± 1.2 | 3.7 ± 1.4 | |
Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts | 6.9 ± 1.6 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 0.7 ± 0.5 | 4.6 ± 1.5 | |
Sugar, honey and syrups | 6.4 ± 1.5 | 3.4 ± 1.2 | 0.4 ± 0.4 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 2.2 ± 1.0 | |
Chocolate and chocolate-based confectionery | 5.1 ± 1.4 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.4 ± 0.5 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 4.5 ± 1.3 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 53.9 | 5.7 | 10.6 | 10.8 | 26.9 | |
Sodium | Regular breads, and bread rolls (plain/unfilled/untopped varieties) | 10.7 ± 1.5 | 2.9 ± 0.5 | 4.9 ± 1.0 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 1.7 ± 0.5 |
Burgers | 6.9 ± 1.7 | 0.1 ± 0.2 | 2.8 ± 1.0 | 3.1 ± 1.2 | 0.9 ± 0.5 | |
Processed meat | 6.4 ± 1.4 | 1.9 ± 0.9 | 2.2 ± 0.6 | 1.6 ± 0.8 | 0.7 ± 0.5 | |
Pizza | 4.6 ± 1.3 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.5 | 3.5 ± 1.2 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | |
Pastries | 4.2 ± 1.2 | 0.3 ± 0.4 | 2.4 ± 1.0 | 0.7 ± 0.4 | 0.8 ± 0.4 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 32.7 | 5.3 | 13.0 | 10.2 | 4.2 | |
Calcium | Dairy milk (cow, sheep and goat) | 21.0 ± 2.5 | 10.8 ± 1.5 | 0.5 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.6 | 8.7 ± 1.9 |
Cheese | 9.7 ± 1.8 | 0.4 ± 0.3 | 3.8 ± 1.0 | 2.4 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 1.4 | |
Flavoured milks and milkshakes | 6.4 ± 2.2 | 1.2 ± 0.8 | 0.9 ± 0.6 | 0.6 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 2.0 | |
Regular breads, and bread rolls (plain/unfilled/untopped varieties) | 5.2 ± 0.7 | 1.3 ± 0.2 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | |
Pizza | 4.4 ± 1.4 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 1.4 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 46.8 | 13.8 | 8.5 | 8.0 | 16.4 | |
Iron | Breakfast cereals, ready to eat | 17.8 ± 3.2 | 15.6 ± 2.6 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.0 ± 0.1 | 1.8 ± 1.2 |
Regular breads, and bread rolls (plain/unfilled/untopped varieties) | 9.0 ± 1.2 | 2.6 ± 0.5 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | |
Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed | 6.0 ± 1.3 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 1.1 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 1.1 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | |
Burgers | 4.4 ± 1.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 1.7 ± 0.7 | 2.0 ± 0.7 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | |
Pasta and dumplings | 4.0 ± 1.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 0.5 | 2.6 ± 0.7 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 41.1 | 18.3 | 8.1 | 10.2 | 4.4 | |
Vitamin A | Carrot and similar root vegetables | 18.6 ± 7.2 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 3.7 ± 3.8 | 12.1 ± 6.3 | 2.8 ± 2.6 |
Dairy milk (cow, sheep and goat) | 8.8 ± 1.2 | 4.5 ± 0.7 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 3.6 ± 1.0 | |
Frozen milk products | 5.4 ± 1.4 | 0.0 ± N/A | 0.5 ± 0.6 | 2.0 ± 1.0 | 3.0 ± 1.1 | |
Soup, homemade from basic ingredients | 4.0 ± 3.1 | 0.5 ± 1.0 | 1.0 ± 0.9 | 2.4 ± 3.0 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | |
Flavoured milks and milkshakes | 3.9 ± 1.4 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | 0.5 ± 0.4 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 2.5 ± 1.4 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 40.7 | 5.6 | 5.9 | 17.2 | 12.0 | |
Magnesium | Regular breads, and bread rolls (plain/unfilled/untopped varieties) | 7.6 ± 1.0 | 2.2 ± 0.4 | 3.5 ± 0.6 | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.3 |
Breakfast cereals, ready to eat | 6.3 ± 1.3 | 5.7 ± 1.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.5 ± 0.4 | |
Waters, municipal and bottled, unflavoured | 6.2 ± 0.7 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.3 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 5.5 ± 0.7 | |
Dairy milk (cow, sheep and goat) | 5.8 ± 0.7 | 3.0 ± 0.4 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 2.4 ± 0.5 | |
Potatoes | 4.8 ± 1.2 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 1.5 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.6 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | |
Sum of top sources 2 | 30.6 | 11.1 | 5.4 | 4.1 | 10.0 |
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Fayet-Moore, F.; McConnell, A.; Kim, J.; Mathias, K.C. Identifying Eating Occasion-Based Opportunities to Improve the Overall Diets of Australian Adolescents. Nutrients 2017, 9, 608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060608
Fayet-Moore F, McConnell A, Kim J, Mathias KC. Identifying Eating Occasion-Based Opportunities to Improve the Overall Diets of Australian Adolescents. Nutrients. 2017; 9(6):608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060608
Chicago/Turabian StyleFayet-Moore, Flavia, Andrew McConnell, Jean Kim, and Kevin C. Mathias. 2017. "Identifying Eating Occasion-Based Opportunities to Improve the Overall Diets of Australian Adolescents" Nutrients 9, no. 6: 608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060608
APA StyleFayet-Moore, F., McConnell, A., Kim, J., & Mathias, K. C. (2017). Identifying Eating Occasion-Based Opportunities to Improve the Overall Diets of Australian Adolescents. Nutrients, 9(6), 608. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060608