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Article

Dynamics of Changes in the Surface Area of Water Bodies in Subsidence Basins in Mining Areas

by
Martyna A. Rzetala
1,
Robert Machowski
1,*,
Maksymilian Solarski
2 and
Mariusz Rzetala
1
1
Institute of Earth Science, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Bedzinska 60, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
2
Institute of Social and Economic Geography and Spatial Management, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Bedzinska 60, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2024, 16(22), 3280; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223280
Submission received: 25 September 2024 / Revised: 10 November 2024 / Accepted: 13 November 2024 / Published: 15 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)

Abstract

:
The Silesian Upland in southern Poland is known as a place where subsidence processes induced by mining activities occur in an area of nearly 1500 square kilometres, with many water bodies that formed in subsidence basins. This study concerned the dynamics of changes in the occurrence, boundaries and area of water bodies in subsidence basins (using orthoimagery from 1996 to 2023), as well as the assessment of the factors underlying the morphogenetic and hydrogenetic transformations of these basins. Within the subsidence basins covered by the study, water bodies occupied a total area that changed from 9.22 hectares in 1996 to 48.43 hectares in 2003, with a maximum of 52.30 hectares in 2009. The obtained figures testify to the extremely dynamic changes taking place in subsidence basins, which are unprecedented within such short time intervals in the case of other morphogenetic types of lakes and anthropogenic water bodies (for instance, from 1996 to 2003, the basin of the Brantka water body in Bytom underwent a more than two-fold change in its area, with RA values in the range of 54.4% to 131.9). A reflection of the dynamics of short-term changes in the water bodies in question in the period from 1996 to 2023 is the increase in the water area of the three studied water bodies, which was projected by linear regression to range from 0.09 hectares/year to 0.56 hectares/year. The area change trends, as determined by polynomial regression, suggest a slight decrease in the water table within the last few years, as well as within the next few years, for each of the studied basins.

1. Introduction

All human activities are referred to as anthropopressure [1,2]. The most important anthropogenic factors that result in the transformation of the geographic environment include land development [3] and industrial activity, primarily open-pit and underground mining of mineral resources. In areas affected by this type of activity, the most visible transformations concern land relief and water relations. An excellent example in this respect is anthropogenic water bodies formed in so-called mining subsidence basins [4,5].
Deformations—both continuous (gradual land subsidence) and discontinuous (sudden land collapse)—whether they are of natural origins (e.g., karst processes and suffosion processes) or are natural processes initiated by human activity (e.g., underground mineral extraction and groundwater abstraction), practically always cause changes in land cover and land use [6,7,8,9,10,11]. These changes are usually perceived as economically unfavourable due to the social and economic damage they cause, e.g., damage to buildings, loss of land use value, and damage to transportation routes [10,12,13,14,15,16], and their unintentional occurrence has only a few benefits, i.e., where land deformation attracts human interest (e.g., tourist traffic) or leads to the emergence of habitats with interesting landscapes [16].
Significant damage caused by both gradual land subsidence and sudden land collapse induced by underground mining affects people’s lives locally [10] and, thus, has been the subject of extensive research [7,13,14,16,17,18,19]. This research is aimed at, inter alia, determining the origins of landforms created by land deformation processes [20,21,22,23], predicting the occurrence of these processes and landforms in spatial and temporal terms [24,25,26,27,28,29], developing methods of counteracting their emergence and identifying the social and economic consequences of gradual land subsidence and sudden land collapse processes [11].
The Silesian Upland and adjacent areas in southern Poland form one of Europe’s largest former industrial districts, which developed as a result of deep mining of rich hard coal deposits in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin and, to a lesser extent, zinc and lead ores [30,31]. Subsidence processes in the area in question are quite common [11], as is the occurrence of water bodies in subsidence basins and hollows [32]. Artificial water bodies located in subsidence basins and hollows are fairly common features of the landscape in areas affected by underground mineral extraction (coal, zinc and lead ores) on the Silesian Upland and its outskirts.
In the area in question and, more precisely, in the region of Tarnowskie Góry and Bytom in its northern part, underground mining of silver and lead ores developed as early as the 13th century. At that time, only shallow deposits located above the first groundwater level were mined [33]. Coal mining began in the mid-16th century but did not intensify until the 19th century, when steam engines began to be used to dewater mine workings [34]. The greatest changes in the natural environment caused by mining occurred in the second half of the 20th century. From the economic point of view, the most significant were the Upper Carboniferous formations developed in the form of, inter alia, coal seams. Around 400 coal seams and inserts are present throughout the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. The thickness of individual seams varies considerably, ranging from 0.4 m to as much as 24 m. Nearly 260 hard coal seams are economically workable. The maximum total thickness of mineable coal seams to a depth of 1000 m is about 65 m, while the average value for the entire basin is between 20 and 30 m [35]. In some places, many years of underground mining have resulted in the formation of extensive subsidence basins with a maximum depth of 35 m [11].
After minerals and rocks have been extracted, empty spaces are left underground. Subsequently, rock masses slowly move to fill the formed cavities. Consequence of such movements include morphological changes that manifest themselves on the surface as the deformation of layers, land subsidence and the formation of depressions. The subsidence factor differs depending on the adopted method of underground mining. In the case of full extraction that involves block caving, subsidence amounts to 0.7 m for every metre of rock removed. The smallest subsidence, on the order of 0.02–0.03 m, is found in the case of partial extraction that is carried out in strips using hydraulic backfill. The presence of tectonic dislocations in the form of faults at various depths in the substrate results primarily in the emergence of discontinuous deformations of the surface [36]. In cases where mining is carried out at depths of up to 100 m, rapid displacements of rock masses occur, causing discontinuous deformations (breaks in the continuity of rock layers) such as thresholds, sinkholes, fissures or ditches. On the other hand, so-called continuous deformations (subsidence basins) are formed where the overlying rocks exhibit greater plasticity or mining takes place at depths greater than approximately 100 m. Subsidence basins have very different shapes, with their sizes, boundaries and the courses of their formation processes being dependent on factors related to the mining process and geological conditions [37,38]. As a result, land subsidence processes may be locally accompanied by land uplift occurring as a result of stresses, displacements, cracks and deflections in the horizontal and vertical planes of geological structures within the subsidence basin.
Underground mining generally requires prior dewatering, which involves pumping groundwater from the area where mineral deposits are present to the land surface (this water is then retained in reservoirs or transferred outside the mining operation area). Water is pumped out, and a cone of depression forms as a result in the groundwater level as the underground zone to be mined is being drained. Pumping reduces water pressure and induces groundwater flow towards the pumping sites and the mining area in general. Mining drainage results in the emergence of (often very extensive) so-called depression funnels with a lowered groundwater table, loss of the hydraulic link between surface and groundwater, the disappearance of springs and surface watercourses and even the disappearance of lakes. These situations are quite common in various parts of the world [39,40,41,42]. Far less often, deep mining results in the formation of depressions wherein water bodies appear [43,44]. In order for artificial lakes to form in places where the ground has subsided, certain conditions must be fulfilled. Within the subsiding rock formation, impermeable formations must be present at low depths that effectively stop the water from infiltrating into the ground. The formed subsidence basin forces surface waters and groundwaters to flow towards its central part, which leads to the elevation of the water table relative to the ground surface. The influx of groundwater and rainwater fills the subsidence basin, resulting in the emergence of a water body [10].
The main reason for the difficulty in determining the number and area of artificial water bodies associated with deep mining is the considerable dynamic variability of these water bodies. The use of traditional cartographic tools in the form of topographic maps usually allows for the analysis of long-term changes, i.e., those taking place within a multiannual period. When conducting inventories of this type of water body to date, researchers have emphasised that the established numbers refer to the specific year in which the mapping was carried out [16]. In addition, it was noticed that many water bodies emerged or disappeared (were liquidated) in periods between subsequent inventories. Thus, there is a need to check for the presence of water bodies in subsidence basins with greater temporal resolution in order to determine the detailed environmental conditions affecting these water bodies. More detailed field observations can be made with the use of remote sensing methods, both active (using radar, lidar or sonar and based on the analysis of the signals transmitted and reflected from the studied objects) and passive (based on the analysis of the signals emitted by remotely observed objects through imagery, e.g., satellite, aerial or ground photography) [45]. The rapid development of remote sensing allows aerial and satellite images, including orthoimagery, to be used in order to monitor changes in the area of lakes and artificial water bodies [46,47,48]. In studies of transformations of aquatic environments, including studies of lakes and other bodies of water, aerial photographs and satellite imagery have become a primary source of data on the functioning of these ecosystems and the impact of human pressures on the aquatic environment [49,50,51,52,53]. Studies based on the interpretation of aerial photographs or satellite imagery are often conducted with respect to environments where field surveys are not feasible due to the difficulty of accessing the studied objects or the high cost of conducting in situ work. Studies of this type concern, e.g., water quality, hydrochemical composition and vegetation [54]. One of the main research aspects is the issue of changes in the surface area and dynamics of the coastal zone of lakes and water bodies, which have been successfully identified using various aerial photographs and satellite imagery [55,56,57,58].
The purpose of this study is to determine the dynamics of changes in the occurrence, boundaries and area of water bodies in subsidence basins (using orthoimagery from 1996 to 2023), as well as to attempt to assess the factors underlying the detailed morpho- and hydrogenetic transformations of these new aquatic ecosystems emerging under conditions of so-called continuous deformation or subsidence. This information is extremely useful in the context of establishing and implementing zoning plans, as well as in the context of developing land subject to land subsidence processes, which, as a rule, introduce many changes in the natural environment and cause infrastructural damage.

2. Study Area

The study area covers the Silesian Upland and adjacent areas in southern Poland (Figure 1). Water bodies in subsidence basins in the following three locations were selected for detailed study: the Brandka water body in Bytom, the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia and the Bory water body in Sosnowiec.
In the study area (Figure 2), of most importance are Upper Carboniferous formations consisting of sandstones, mudstones, clay shales and coal deposits [59]. In the vicinity of the Brandka water body in Bytom, the rock mass consists of Carboniferous sandstones, conglomerates, claystones, mudstones and shales, as well as hard coal, that form the Upper Silesian Sandstone Series, in addition to the mudstones, claystones, sandstones and hard coal included in the mudstone series. These formations are overlain by Triassic rocks in the form of sands, sandstones, clays, claystones and mudstones, as well as dolomites, marls and limestones. Directly on the surface are Quaternary glaciofluvial sands and gravels deposited on glacial tills [60]. The geological profile of the area of the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia includes Carboniferous sandstones, claystones and mudstones, as well as hard coal from the Ruda and Saddle beds. Above them lie Tertiary clays interbedded with sands, quartz dust, and clayey and sandy shales. The valley floor is covered with Quaternary sediments such as sands with glaciofluvial gravels, dusty–argillaceous loams, clays, deluvial silts and loess [61]. The geological structure of the vicinity of the Bory water body in Sosnowiec includes Carboniferous sediments in the form of sandstones, claystones, mudstones, shales and conglomerates, within which coal insertions and seams are present. Overlying them are Triassic sandstones, fine- and medium-grained sands and grey, variegated clays, as well as dolomitic limestones and marls. The surface is dominated by Quaternary glaciofluvial sands and gravels underlain by insertions of impermeable clay formations [62].
Within the area under study, average annual precipitation ranges from 700 to 800 mm. The distribution of precipitation in individual months of the year can vary widely from year to year and is largely determined by circulation factors. Precipitation occurs for about 220 days in a year, with a maximum in July and August (about 100 mm) and a minimum (40 mm) in January and February [63]. Annual field evaporation is estimated at about 440–540 mm [64,65], but water surfaces with macrophyte vegetation can exhibit much higher values [66].
In hydrological terms, the Silesian Upland is the watershed of the Vistula River basin and the Oder River basin and, at the same time, the area where sources of many tributaries of these rivers are located. The Silesian Upland, together with adjacent areas, is often referred to as an artificial lake district, with about 4700 anthropogenic water bodies situated within an area of 6766 square kilometres; the total surface area of these water bodies amounts to 185.4 square kilometres, and the percentage of the area covered by them is 2.74% [67]. A characteristic feature of catchment areas of watercourses flowing through the Silesian Upland is the presence of numerous inundated areas at the bottoms of subsidence basins; some of these are flow-through, while others are endorheic [68].

3. Materials and Methods

Studies of changes in the presence, boundaries and surface area of water bodies in subsidence basins have been carried out using library research, field mapping, cartometric analyses, and statistical analysis methods and tools [69,70,71,72,73].
Library research has been conducted with a territorial scope corresponding to the Silesian Upland and a temporal scope corresponding to the settlement processes identified within this area (i.e., in the period from the late 19th century to the present) [10,11,16,32,33,34,74,75,76,77,78,79,80].
Field mapping was carried out in the catchments of the studied water bodies and in their immediate vicinity. This consisted of recording all hydrological phenomena and processes, as well as taking ground-level photographs and low-altitude aerial photographs using a drone. This research was complementary to the material collected through remote sensing methods and cartometric analyses.
Remote sensing methods were used to indirectly assess changes in the presence, boundaries and surface area of the studied water bodies. Analysing orthoimagery, which is taken at a much higher frequency than traditional maps, makes it possible to accurately trace contemporary changes in the surface areas of water bodies and, in some cases, determine the approximate duration of their presence in the environment from their emergence to their disappearance [81]. Remote sensing methods are commonly used in studying and monitoring lakes in many parts of the world for characteristics such as water transparency [82]; water quality [83]; temperature, including ice phenomena [84]; and the presence of phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, and submerged and emergent vegetation [85,86].
Cartometric work consisted in mapping the analysed areas (e.g., water bodies, occurrence of vegetation and identification of landforms), the determination of their extent on orthophotos and the application of simple digital map algebra (with comparisons conducted for time intervals determined by the availability of cartographic materials). Cartometric analyses were carried out using the tools built into the Geoportal of the Silesian Province website [87], which allow accurate measurements to be performed for morphometric parameters of water bodies (e.g., length, average width, maximum width, water area, elongation ratio and shoreline length). The high resolution of the available imagery allows the boundaries of the water bodies to be visually identified with very high accuracy. Aerial photographs georeferenced in the QGiS open-source application were used in compiling the data on each of the analysed water bodies. All images were aligned to the current coordinate system (Państwowy Układ Współrzędnych Geodezyjnych 1992—State Geodetic Coordinate System 1992). By determining the coordinates of characteristic points found in aerial photos (intersections, buildings and churches), it was possible to georeference the photos using the control-point method and subsequently conduct cartometric measurements of the studied water bodies. The aerial photos used in this study are characterised by a field pixel size (ground sampling distance) ranging from 5 to 65 cm in the RGB primary colour space. The georeferenced raster images were subsequently vectorised. On this basis, a spatio-temporal database was developed for each of the analysed water bodies [88].
A collection of orthoimages (orthophotos) from 1996 to 2023 covering the entire study area was used for the detailed study [87]. An orthophoto is a raster image of the land surface created by processing aerial or satellite photographs. The images are available free of charge on the Geoportal Województwa Śląskiego—Regionalna Infrastruktura Informacji Przestrzennej (Geoportal of the Silesian Province—Regional Spatial Information Infrastructure) [87]. Currently, the application allows orthoimagery from 1996, 2003, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022 and 2023 to be viewed and compared. The first series of orthophotos taken in 1996 was compiled from analogue colour aerial photographs in the 1992 coordinate system with a resolution of 0.65 m (1:10,000 archiving module). The second series of orthophotos taken in 2003 was the only one compiled in black and white, using analogue photos with a resolution of 0.25 m (1:10,000 archiving module). The 2009, 2015, 2018–2021 and 2023 orthoimagery used in the research utilises the same coordinate system, with a resolution of 0.25 m, and was created from digital aerial photographs archived in a 1:5000 module. The other orthoimagery collections were created from digital aerial photographs (also in the 1992 coordinate system and archived in a 1:5000 module), but those were more accurate—the field pixel size of 2012 orthophotos is 0.1 m, while for 2022 orthophotos, it is 0.05 m. The coordinate system is the same as that of the other series, enabling comparisons to be made [87]. The orthoimagery collection provided representative data on changes in the surface area of water bodies in subsidence basins with a temporal resolution ranging from one year to a maximum of seven years. The analysis used data from individual imaging periods, without interpolating or extrapolating the obtained results to periods that lacked remote sensing observations.
The Wojewódzki Ośrodek Dokumentacji Geodezyjnej i Kartograficznej (Provincial Surveying and Cartographic Documentation Centre) in Katowice, which is an organisational unit of the local government of the Silesian Province, is responsible for maintaining and updating the geoportal [89]. In 2021, a decision was made to update the geoportal annually with new orthoimagery, which has made it possible to continuously monitor changes in the surface area of water bodies in subsidence basins with a fairly high frequency. The publication of materials from the application is permitted, provided that information on their source is included [87].
The analysis was conducted on the basis of simple indicators and metrics determined using statistical analysis tools (e.g., minimum and maximum, arithmetic mean, 1st quartile, median, 3rd quartile, standard deviation, slope and R2), and correlation and regression methods were used to establish the trend of changes in water bodies in subsidence basins [90,91]. Formulas were also used to support the analysis of changes in water body area and shoreline length, i.e., the coefficient of variation of area (1), the coefficient of variation of water-body perimeter (2) and the lake elongation ratio (3).
R A = A R A Z 100 %
where RA is the coefficient of variation of water-body area [%], AR is the surface area of the water body at any stage of basin development [ha] and AZ is the surface area of the water body with the study date as the reference date [ha].
The RA index takes values of RA < 100% when the water-body area is smaller than the reference area and RA > 100% when the evaluated area is larger than the reference area. The value of the RSL index is interpreted in a similar manner. For both indices, 2023 parameters were adopted as a benchmark.
R S L = S L 1 S L 2 100 %
where RSL is the coefficient of variation of water-body shoreline length [%], SL1 is the length of the water-body shoreline at any stage of basin development [m] and SL2 is the length of the water-body shoreline with the study date as the reference date [m].
The lake elongation ratio (3) is dimensionless and is defined as the ratio of the length of the lake (L) relative to its average width (expressed in metres) (Wav).
RE = L/Wav

4. Results

Subsidence processes have been evident in an area of about 1000 square kilometres, and may eventually cover 1500 square kilometres, with a significant share of water bodies occupying subsidence basins and hollows [74]. As early as the second half of the 20th century, it was recommended that new levees be constructed in mining subsidence areas within the study area and existing ones be raised, as well as that nearly 200 pumping stations be constructed to drain the newly formed depressions within the area in view of the projected formation of huge endorheic basins where gravity drainage would be difficult or impossible. The area of these basins was estimated at 9660 hectares and their capacity at about 542.4 million cubic metres [16]. At the end of the 20th century, within the boundaries of the Katowice conurbation alone, which is much smaller than the Silesian Upland, there were 369 water bodies in subsidence basins (i.e., 31.1% of the total number of all water bodies), which covered a total area of nearly 5 km2, i.e., nearly 49% of the total water surface area, within this polycentric agglomeration [11]. It is worth noting that in 1902, there were only 26 water bodies in subsidence basins in the area corresponding to the modern Katowice conurbation [11].
Detailed calculations of the number of water bodies in subsidence basins and hollows have also been conducted for generally much smaller administrative or economic units, catchment areas or parts thereof. As a result of the conducted inventories, it was determined that the water bodies with the origins in question were present in the following areas:
  • The area of Bytom in numbers ranging from 25 (total area: 4.13 hectares) in 1881–1902 to 75 (area: 58.38 hectares) in 1989 [75];
  • The area of Sosnowiec in numbers ranging from 3 (area: 14 ha) in 1891 to 60 (area: 38 ha) in 1985 [76];
  • The area of Katowice [77] and Świętochłowice [78];
  • The Rawa River catchment area in numbers ranging from 6 (area: 5 ha) in 1902 to 46 (area: 91 ha) in 1994 [11];
  • The area of Chorzów, ranging in number from just 4 in 1990 to 48 in 1994 [79];
  • The catchment area of the Bytomka River in numbers ranging from 14 (area: 3 ha) in 1902 to 82 (area: 82 ha) in 1994 [11].
Previous studies presenting quantitative characteristics of water bodies in subsidence basins were conducted on the basis of topographic maps from different years, for instance, 1902, 1955 and 1994 [11,75,76,77,78,79]. Entirely new inventory data have been provided by detailed analyses based on satellite and aerial images and the orthoimagery compiled from them; these analyses were carried out for several water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland (Table 1 and Table 2). In 2023, the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia and the Brandka water body in Bytom were the largest among the analysed water bodies, with areas amounting to nearly 17 hectares each. The Bory water body in Sosnowiec had a slightly smaller area of 14.5 hectares.
The Brandka water body in Bytom is one of the largest artificial lakes in a mining subsidence basin in the Silesian Upland [80]. It began to form in the early 1990s. At that time, four small water bodies appeared at the site of the largest subsidence. The largest one was about 1.2 hectares, and together, they had an area of 1.7 hectares [92]. Within a few years, they had grown and merged into a single water body, which, in 1996, had an area of 9.22 hectares (Figure 3). The biggest changes occurred in the initial period of the water body’s existence; between 1996 and 2003, there was a further increase in water area of about 142%, from 9.22 hectares to 22.36 hectares. In 2003, the water body reached its maximum size of nearly 132% of its 2023 area. At the same time, this was the largest value determined in the multiannual period under consideration for all the studied water bodies. Since then, its surface area has generally declined, with a relative stabilisation since 2013. During exceptionally wet periods, such as 1997, brief increases in the water surface have occurred, potentially posing a threat to the buildings located west of the water body. In such situations, the relevant services were involved, and they pumped out water from the water body, limiting the extent of the flooding area. In addition to these intentional actions, human activity has also impacted water-body surface area in other ways. In 2008, the construction of a section of the northern bypass of the Upper Silesian Industrial Region started in the eastern part of the area in question. The road embankment constructed for this purpose occupied the narrow eastern section of the water body. In addition to human technical interference, which causes changes in the surface area and shoreline, water bodies in subsidence basins, like any other lakes, are also subject to natural changes. These changes most often take the form of vegetation growth that reduces the water surface area and smoothens the shoreline. The water body in question is used for fishing, so in some places, anglers cut down strips of vegetation so as to gain access to the water. This type of activity particularly affects the northwestern and southwestern sections of the water body.
In the case of the water body that emerged in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia, the changes are of a slightly different nature (Figure 4). As in the other cases, the origin of the subsidence basin is related to underground mining operations carried out in the area. However, this water body is primarily recharged by the waters of the river that flows through it. The other studied water bodies are fed by groundwater and surface runoff. Mining subsidence became apparent in the study area some time before 1996, and the orthoimagery from that year shows the levees that had been constructed along the river. On the one hand, these levees protect adjacent areas from being flooded by river waters. On the other hand, they impede rainwater and snowmelt from running off into the river channel. The effects of these activities can be seen in the 2003 orthophoto. Further land subsidence and the presence of terrain obstacles in the form of the aforementioned levees made it more difficult for water that was outside the river to flow into it. At that time, flooded areas emerged beyond the levees, especially on the west side of the river. Minor flooding also occurred east of the levees. The total flooded area was 5.65 hectares, which amounted to just over 33% of the 2023 water-body area. Further mining subsidence and inundation of more areas, including those inhabited by people, was predicted. Measures were taken sufficiently in advance to resettle people from those areas. The abandoned buildings situated in the northwestern part of the current water-body basin were demolished. In 2009, the water body reached its largest size of 19.35 hectares, amounting to nearly 114% of its contemporary surface area. The levees were destroyed and completely submerged under water. It was necessary to resettle more families, this time from the southwestern part of the water body. A low-voltage line was also destroyed, as evidenced by the remains of sunken power line poles (Figure 5). The water reached the base of the road embankment that now runs along the western bank of the water body, causing a real danger to vehicular traffic. By 2013, construction work had been completed to raise and strengthen the embankment and construct culverts within it to allow water to drain. At that time, the surface area of the water body clearly decreased to less than 15 hectares. Remnants of the former levees emerged above the surface of the water, together with a small island in the northeastern part of the water body. During the next two years, water levels within the water body stabilised. As a result, vegetation sprang up in its coastal zone and on the exposed surfaces of the island and levees. The water-body area has also been reduced by intentional human actions. In the zone adjacent to the water body from the southwest, loose rock material was deposited, forming a shoreline while backfilling a section of the lake. That year, its area was reduced to just over 14 hectares, which is less than 83% of its current size. In 2018 and 2019, there was a progressive rise in water levels, causing the island to disappear and adjacent areas to be flooded. To reduce flooding, the southeastern part of the water body was backfilled with waste rock from local coal mines. At that time, areas to the west of the road became flooded. As a result of a further rise in the water level, overflow weirs in the road embankment became obstructed. In 2023, the area of the water body increased by just over 1 hectare compared to 2022. This concerned, in particular, the northern and southwestern parts of the water body, as well as the areas situated to the west of the road.
At a similar time to the water body in the Szotkówka River valley, the Bory water body located in the eastern part of the Silesian Upland, within the city limits of Sosnowiec, emerged (Figure 6). Mining subsidence started to become evident in the early 21st century when it affected mostly forested areas. In 2003, a waterlogged basin appeared, within which most of the flooded trees were cut. A railroad embankment runs through the central part of this basin from the north to the south, dividing it into a smaller eastern part and a larger western part. The need to ensure the unobstructed passage of trains necessitated the maintenance and upgrading of the four railroad tracks running along the embankment. Despite the clear difference in terms of their origins, these water bodies should be treated as a single water body. At the time, the total flooded area measured nearly 4.6 hectares, which is about a third of its current extent. Land subsidence continued, which translated into an increase in the area of the water body to just over 11 hectares in 2009. The increase in water surface area generally proceeded concentrically from the centre of the basin, with a slight dominance of the western direction. Further construction work proved necessary, which consisted mainly of raising the embankment to protect the track from flooding. Despite these measures, two small, water-filled depressions emerged between the tracks, which did not endanger train traffic. In 2013, the water body reached its maximum size of just over 17 hectares. It grew mainly at the expense of the areas to the west and north of the centre of the subsidence basin. In the north, the water reached another railroad embankment that runs from the east to the west. At that time, the base of a high-voltage power-line mast and two similar low-voltage structures became submerged as well. In order to protect the power-line infrastructure, a haul road was constructed through the centre of the western water body, which was underwater in places. The base of the power line mast was reinforced, and the other masts situated in the northern part of the water body basin were secured as well (Figure 7). In addition to those measures, the railway embankment was further reinforced, and the eastern edge of the eastern part of the basin was backfilled, where a forest road was reconstructed.
Since 2013, this water body has been slowly shrinking despite the fact that in 2015, a flooded area emerged to the north of the northern railroad branch, forming its separate part. At that time, too, one of the small water bodies between the tracks was completely backfilled with rock material. In 2019, upgrade work was carried out on the northern railroad line, which consisted in strengthening the embankment. These works have shaped the appearance of the water body and the course of its shoreline in this section. Since then, no construction work has been detected. Apart from the purely technical procedures conducted in recent years, the described water body has only been subject to natural transformations. The reduction in its area—mainly due to the nature of its surroundings—is a consequence of the intensive encroachment of shore vegetation.

5. Discussion

The Silesian Upland is one of the few areas in Poland threatened by subsidence processes, which, as previously been mentioned, affect an area of nearly 1500 square kilometres where water bodies are present in subsidence basins. Outside the described area, single lakes in subsidence basins only occur in eastern Poland, in the area affected by the Bogdanka coal mine [93]. Reports of such water bodies in the worldwide literature are also relatively rare. In Europe, they have been described in the Ruhr area in Germany [94] and in the Ostrava-Karviná Coal Basin, which is situated in the Czech Republic right on the border with Poland [95]. In China, the high demand for electricity, which is mainly generated using coal, causes many negative environmental impacts. These are precisely the result of long-term, intensive and large-scale mining of hard coal. Mining subsidence areas have been revealed in 151 districts in 23 Chinese provinces [96]. Increasingly, waterlogged areas emerge in subsidence basins, and in extreme cases, water bodies form there as well [5,96]. Water bodies in subsidence basins and hollows are also found in many other parts of the world, e.g., in the USA [97] and India [98].
The spatial and temporal variability of water bodies in subsidence basins and hollows on the Silesian Upland is primarily related to the intensity of the subsidence process. The deformations caused on the surface may occur both during the mining of mineral resources and after mining has been discontinued. The time from the commencement of mining operations until the first deformations appear, as well as the period during which displacements within the rock mass occur, may vary greatly depending on many factors. Among the most important are the mechanical properties of the overlying rocks, the depth at which mining is carried out, the size of the area affected by mining and the speed with which mining operations progress. Most often, land deformation occurs several years after intensive mining has begun. However, it may also emerge decades after the discontinuation of mining operations [11]. For the above reasons, water bodies in subsidence basins in the study area are characterised by highly dynamic changes over time. This concerns both changes in the surface area of individual water bodies (e.g., the surface area of the Brantka water body in Bytom changed by more than two fold from 1996 to 2003, with the value of the RA index ranging from 54.4% to 131.9%) and other morphometric parameters (e.g., the value of the coefficient of variation of the length of the water-body shoreline, the average and maximum width and length of the water body and the elongation ratio of its basin). These figures testify to the extremely dynamic changes taking place in subsidence basins, which are unprecedented within such short time intervals in the case of other morphogenetic types of lakes and anthropogenic water bodies (obviously, with the exception of water bodies whose basins are periodically drained).
Within the subsidence basins covered by this study, water bodies occupied a total area that changed from 9.22 hectares in 1996 to 48.43 hectares in 2003, with a maximum of 52.30 hectares in 2009 (Figure 8). Values of correlation coefficients testify to a directly proportional increase in the area of the water bodies studied between 1996 and 2023, but this relationship is only significant for the Bory water body in Sosnowiec and in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia and very weak for the Brantka water body in Bytom. Analyses of linear regression, as well as R2 coefficient values, do not confirm the presence of significant trends in the data for the 1996–2023 period; moreover, the values of the R2 coefficient do not yield any information on the uncertainty related to changes in the area of the analysed water bodies. The calculated linear regression parameters suggest a weak correlation in the case of the Bory water body in Sosnowiec (R2 = 0.77) and the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia (R2 = 0.66), while in the case of the Brantka water body, virtually no correlation is present (R2 = 0.05). Nevertheless, the increase in the water area of the three studied water bodies, which was projected by linear regression to range from 0.09 hectares/year to 0.56 hectares/year, can be cautiously considered to reflect the dynamics of short-term changes in the water bodies in question in the years of 1996 to 2023 (Figure 8). More reliable assessments of the analysed trend can be conducted using a polynomial regression model, where the equation includes the so-called free term a (in classical regression analysis this indicates the intercept, i.e., the point where the regression line intersects with the rectangular coordinate system); b1, which is the regression coefficient of the y variable relative to the x variable (which makes it possible to estimate by how much the average value of the y variable will increase when the x variable increases by a unit); and b2, which is the regression coefficient of the x variable relative the y variable (which makes it possible to estimate by how much the average value of the x variable will increase when the y variable increases by a unit). The polynomial regression fit, naturally, is much better than that of linear regression, and the higher the value of the R2 coefficient, the more accurate the prediction. The value of R2 of 0.93 for the Bory water body in Sosnowiec can be considered indicative of a very good model fit; for the Szotkówka River Valley water body in Połomia (R2 = 0.84), the model fit can be considered good; and only for the Brantka water body in Bytom (R2 = 0.55) can the model fit be considered very poor. The area change trends determined by polynomial regression suggest a slight decrease in the water table within the last few years, as well as within the next few years, for each of the studied basins, i.e., by 0.03–0.04 ha/year. This may suggest that the subsidence process has stabilised and that the water bodies are successively being filled with bottom sediments [69]. It is also possible that horizontal and vertical water exchange components in subsidence basins have become balanced as a result of changes in surface runoff from the subsidence zone after a certain water-table level has been reached [10]. The reduction in the area of the water bodies in question may also be due to the increasing efficiency of vegetation overgrowth and, consequently, sedentation processes [99]. Areas within the usually shallow water bodies in subsidence basins are quite abundantly overgrown with vegetation each year. Studies conducted at the height of the growing season revealed that dry plant weight within the overgrown parts of water-body basins on the Silesian Upland ranged from 7.1 to 17.5 kg/m2, with a mean of 10.4 kg/m2 and a slightly lower median of 9.9 kg/m2 [99]. Within the studied water bodies, the share of area occupied by vegetation steadily increased over the analysed period—from 0.6314 ha to 0.9660 ha in the Brantka water body, from 0.1226 ha to 1.7645 ha in the water body in the Szotkówka River valley and from 0.1939 ha to 1.2641 ha in the Bory water body. In 2023, vegetation occupied a significantly larger area within the studied water bodies (5.7% of the area of the Brantka water body, 10.4% of the area of the water body in the Szotkówka River valley and 8.7% of the area of the Bory water body) than in the initial period of their existence. The increase in the area occupied by vegetation indicates the significant contribution of sedentation to the filling of the studied water-body basins with sediments and demonstrates the natural response to the progressive land subsidence reflected in the increase in the area of flooded subsidence basins.
The emergence of water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland is considered primarily in terms of mining damage. In recent years, their number has been declining. Most often, they are eliminated by backfilling the subsidence areas with waste generated by coal mining. This especially concerns those water bodies that threaten road, rail and residential infrastructure. If inundated areas are not subject to human development, then very often, the water bodies formed there are subject to natural transformations, providing new ecological niches and contributing to an increase in habitat biodiversity within the industrialised and urbanised area of the Silesian Upland [16]. Highly dynamic changes are characteristic of these artificial lakes. This applies to both large-scale and small-scale water bodies. Therefore, the analysis of water-body changes in subsidence basins should take into account not only absolute surface-area values but also the conditions that impact these parameters, e.g., precipitation resulting in increased surface inflow or surface runoff from the catchment area to water bodies in subsidence basins that may contribute to an increase in their water levels, overgrowth, backfilling, regulation of their shores, emergence of new flooding zones, etc. Within a water body, one part may become overgrown just as the flooded area increases in another part. In such cases, the surface area of the water body may not change while its boundaries shift significantly. Capturing such changes is possible with the efficient use of remote sensing methods.

6. Conclusions

The water bodies emerging in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland are clearly the result of interactions between humans and the environment. Due to the complicated geological structure of the area and the fact that mining activities are spread over long periods, land deformations already occur at the mining stage but also after such activities have ceased. Water bodies in subsidence basins have formed and will continue to form due to mining damage, irrespective of future human activity. Their spatial and temporal variability results from the varying intensity of the impacts of endogenous (mainly the subsidence process) and exogenous factors (e.g., water supply, evaporation, plant succession, sedimentation and sedentation). A reflection of the subsidence process within the studies water bodies is the changes in their total area: from 10.98 hectares in 1996 to 48.59 hectares in 2023 (with a maximum of 55.68 hectares in 2009), with the average rate of increase in the area of individual water bodies from 1993 to 2023 ranging from 0.09 hectares/year to 0.56 hectares per year and a slight reduction in the water area of each water body in the last few years by about 0.03–0.04 hectares per year.
Aerial and satellite images, as well as high-resolution analogue and digital orthoimagery produced at short intervals, allow for a reliable assessment of the temporal variability of the studied water bodies. The conducted analyses demonstrated that these water bodies are undergoing intensive changes, especially at the stage of their formation. After the relative stabilisation of the rock mass, these lakes tend to undergo natural transformations. During extremely wet periods, their surface area increases. After the water level has gone down, some submerged structures are revealed, such as levees, roads, damaged buildings, dead trees, etc. As a result of overgrowth and filling with sediment, their surface area gradually decreases, and the shoreline becomes smoother.
The high variability of water bodies in subsidence basins is often the result of the elimination of the concave basin form as part of measures aimed at counteracting mining damage or wasteland reclamation projects. Roads or railroad embankments are constructed within these water bodies, and in extreme cases, they are completely eliminated or their area is reduced to the minimum necessary.

Author Contributions

All authors (M.A.R., R.M., M.S. and M.R.) conceived of and planned the study, conducted field work, analysed the results, and wrote the paper. All authors collaborated on manuscript editing at all stages. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland)—Institute of Earth Sciences project no. WNP/INoZ/2023_ZB25.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Locations of studied water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland: (A)—Poland; (B)—Silesian Upland; ➀—the Brandka water body in Bytom; ➁—the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia; ➂—the Bory water body in Sosnowiec.
Figure 1. Locations of studied water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland: (A)—Poland; (B)—Silesian Upland; ➀—the Brandka water body in Bytom; ➁—the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia; ➂—the Bory water body in Sosnowiec.
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Figure 2. Conceptual models of water-body functioning in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland: (A) The Brandka water body in Bytom; (B) the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia; (C) the Bory water body in Sosnowiec. 1—fluvial silts, sands and gravels (Holocene); 2—glaciofluvial sands and gravels (Pleistocene); 3—glacial sands, gravels and boulders (Pleistocene); 4—silty loam (Pleistocene); 5—silty loam on stratified sands and gravels (Pleistocene); 6—loess (Pleistocene); 7—clays, sandy clays, sands and sandstones (Neogene); 8—light-grey marly dolomites, Diplopora dolomites, ore-bearing dolomites, and banded and wavy-bedded limestones (Middle Triassic); 9—sandstones, coal, shales (Upper Carboniferous); 10—claystones, mudstones and coal (Upper Carboniferous); 11—sandstones, mudstones, conglomerates, claystones and coal (Upper Carboniferous); 12—anthropogenic forms (e.g., embankments and allochthonous sediments filling basins as a result of human activity); 13—water bodies; 14—land surface before the occurrence of continuous and discontinuous deformation processes; 15—groundwater table of the first aquifer; 16—groundwater present in lower aquifers (including those affected by mining drainage); 17—crack lines induced by mining activities; 18—former and modern mine workings; 19—trees and shrubs; 20—herbaceous vegetation; 21—rush vegetation (sedentation); 22—transportation routes; 23—various forms of evaporation; 24—precipitation; 25—surface runoff; 26—inflows (surface and underground, including debris supply); 27—outflows (surface and underground).
Figure 2. Conceptual models of water-body functioning in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland: (A) The Brandka water body in Bytom; (B) the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia; (C) the Bory water body in Sosnowiec. 1—fluvial silts, sands and gravels (Holocene); 2—glaciofluvial sands and gravels (Pleistocene); 3—glacial sands, gravels and boulders (Pleistocene); 4—silty loam (Pleistocene); 5—silty loam on stratified sands and gravels (Pleistocene); 6—loess (Pleistocene); 7—clays, sandy clays, sands and sandstones (Neogene); 8—light-grey marly dolomites, Diplopora dolomites, ore-bearing dolomites, and banded and wavy-bedded limestones (Middle Triassic); 9—sandstones, coal, shales (Upper Carboniferous); 10—claystones, mudstones and coal (Upper Carboniferous); 11—sandstones, mudstones, conglomerates, claystones and coal (Upper Carboniferous); 12—anthropogenic forms (e.g., embankments and allochthonous sediments filling basins as a result of human activity); 13—water bodies; 14—land surface before the occurrence of continuous and discontinuous deformation processes; 15—groundwater table of the first aquifer; 16—groundwater present in lower aquifers (including those affected by mining drainage); 17—crack lines induced by mining activities; 18—former and modern mine workings; 19—trees and shrubs; 20—herbaceous vegetation; 21—rush vegetation (sedentation); 22—transportation routes; 23—various forms of evaporation; 24—precipitation; 25—surface runoff; 26—inflows (surface and underground, including debris supply); 27—outflows (surface and underground).
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Figure 3. Changes in the area of the Brandka water body from 1996 to 2023 (source: [87]; simplified and supplemented): 1—water bodies in subsidence basins; 2—the extent of water bodies in subsidence basins in 2023.
Figure 3. Changes in the area of the Brandka water body from 1996 to 2023 (source: [87]; simplified and supplemented): 1—water bodies in subsidence basins; 2—the extent of water bodies in subsidence basins in 2023.
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Figure 4. Changes in the area of the water body in the subsidence basin in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia from 1996 to 2023 (source: [87]; simplified and supplemented): 1—water bodies in subsidence basins; 2—the extent of water bodies in subsidence basins in 2023.
Figure 4. Changes in the area of the water body in the subsidence basin in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia from 1996 to 2023 (source: [87]; simplified and supplemented): 1—water bodies in subsidence basins; 2—the extent of water bodies in subsidence basins in 2023.
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Figure 5. Destroyed power-line pole within the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia in 2013 (photo: R. Machowski).
Figure 5. Destroyed power-line pole within the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia in 2013 (photo: R. Machowski).
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Figure 6. Changes in the area of the Bory water body in Sosnowiec from 1996 to 2023 (source: [87]; simplified and supplemented): 1—water bodies in subsidence basins; 2—the extent of water bodies in subsidence basins in 2023.
Figure 6. Changes in the area of the Bory water body in Sosnowiec from 1996 to 2023 (source: [87]; simplified and supplemented): 1—water bodies in subsidence basins; 2—the extent of water bodies in subsidence basins in 2023.
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Figure 7. Flooded base of a high-voltage power-line mast and haul road within the Bory water body in Sosnowiec in 2013 (photo: R. Machowski).
Figure 7. Flooded base of a high-voltage power-line mast and haul road within the Bory water body in Sosnowiec in 2013 (photo: R. Machowski).
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Figure 8. Trends in changes in the area of water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland in 1996–2023 determined by linear and polynomial regression. (A) The Brandka water body in Bytom; (B) the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia; (C) the Bory water body in Sosnowiec.
Figure 8. Trends in changes in the area of water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland in 1996–2023 determined by linear and polynomial regression. (A) The Brandka water body in Bytom; (B) the water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia; (C) the Bory water body in Sosnowiec.
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Table 1. Basic morphometric parameters of water bodies formed in subsidence basins from 1996 to 2023.
Table 1. Basic morphometric parameters of water bodies formed in subsidence basins from 1996 to 2023.
YearAreaShoreline LengthLengthWidthElongation Ratio
RE
Mean ValueMaximum
[ha]RA [%][m]RSL [%][m][m][m]
The Brandka water body in Bytom
19969.2254.42290.074.9872.0106.0187.08.23
200322.36131.93234.0105.7981.0228.0506.04.30
200921.84128.84216.0137.8982.0222.0552.04.42
201317.64104.12992.097.8946.0186.0431.05.09
201517.13101.12830.092.5947.0181.0425.05.23
201817.58103.73042.099.4962.0183.0411.05.26
201917.26101.83192.0104.3949.0182.0422.05.21
202117.32102.23193.0104.4954.0182.0427.05.24
202217.27101.93250.0106.2960.0180.0414.05.33
202316.95100.03059.0100.0943.0180.0397.05.24
The water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia
19960.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00
20035.6533.31624.0129.8587.096.0155.06.09
200919.35114.02108.0146.3703.0275.0378.02.56
201314.9688.12376.0138.1581.0257.0367.02.26
201514.0582.72243.0132.8582.0241.0370.02.41
201815.9293.82156.0142.1634.0251.0377.02.53
201915.5691.62308.0144.5632.0246.0378.02.57
202115.5791.72347.0149.0647.0240.0374.02.70
202215.7092.52419.0147.8651.0241.0371.02.70
202316.98100.02401.0100.0680.0250.0379.02.72
The Bory water body in Sosnowiec
19960.00 10.000.0 10.000.0 20.0 20.0 20.00 2
20034.57 131.51543.0 141.1224.0 2103.0 2140.0 22.17 2
200911.11 176.62431.0 164.8229.0 278.0 2108.0 22.94 2
201317.15 1118.34063.0 1108.3241.0 289.0 2133.0 22.71 2
201516.68 1115.04223.0 1112.6289.0 289.0 2134.0 23.25 2
201815.63 1107.83836.0 1102.3271.0 285.0 2131.0 23.19 2
201915.25 1105.23937.0 1105.0271.0 284.0 2128.0 23.23 2
202115.10 1104.13870.0 1103.2270.0 284.0 2129.0 23.21 2
202214.94 1103.03983.0 1106.2272.0 282.0 2130.0 23.32 2
202314.50 1100.03751.0 1100.0275.0 279.0 2127.0 23.48 2
Notes: 1 the aggregate value for all water bodies formed within subsidence basins; 2 the average value for all water bodies formed within subsidence basins.
Table 2. Basic statistical characteristics of changes in the area of water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland from 1996 to 2023.
Table 2. Basic statistical characteristics of changes in the area of water bodies in subsidence basins on the Silesian Upland from 1996 to 2023.
ParameterAreaShoreline LengthLengthWidthElongation Ratio
RE
Mean ValueMaximum
[ha][m][m][m][m]
The Brandka water body in Bytom
Minimum9.222290.0872.0106.0187.04.30
1st quartile17.163004.5946.3180.3411.85.12
Median17.303125.5951.5182.0423.55.24
3rd quartile17.633223.8961.5185.3430.05.26
Maximum22.364216.0982.0228.0552.08.23.
Arithmetic mean17.463129.8949.6183.0417.25.36
Standard deviation3.52476.130.632.594.21.07
Slope (linear regression)0.091112.87851.40270.88843.3204−0.0544
R2 (linear regression)0.05260.05750.16550.05870.09760.2014
The water body in the Szotkówka River valley in Połomia
Minimum0.000.000.000.000.000.00
1st quartile14.282120.0583.3240.3367.82.44
Median15.572275.5633.0243.5372.52.57
3rd quartile15.872368.8650.0250.8377.82.70
Maximum19.352419.0703.0275.0379.06.09
Arithmetic mean13.371998.2569.7209.7314.92.65
Standard deviation5.89740.1204.388.8130.41.46
Slope (linear regression)0.541072.167517.19018.282212.89840.0155
R2 (linear regression)0.66380.74690.55600.68360.76840.0089
The Bory water body in Sosnowiec
Minimum0.000.00.00.00.00.00
1st quartile11.962761.0232.079.8127.32.77
Median15.023853.0270.584.0129.53.20
3rd quartile15.543971.5271.888.0132.53.25
Maximum17.154223.0289.0103.0140.03.48
Arithmetic mean12.493163.7234.277.3116.02.75
Standard deviation5.721401.185.128.141.61.04
Slope (linear regression)0.5668144.20387.99721.79563.23530.1047
R2 (linear regression)0.77190.83200.69430.32170.47540.7998
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Rzetala, M.A.; Machowski, R.; Solarski, M.; Rzetala, M. Dynamics of Changes in the Surface Area of Water Bodies in Subsidence Basins in Mining Areas. Water 2024, 16, 3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223280

AMA Style

Rzetala MA, Machowski R, Solarski M, Rzetala M. Dynamics of Changes in the Surface Area of Water Bodies in Subsidence Basins in Mining Areas. Water. 2024; 16(22):3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223280

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rzetala, Martyna A., Robert Machowski, Maksymilian Solarski, and Mariusz Rzetala. 2024. "Dynamics of Changes in the Surface Area of Water Bodies in Subsidence Basins in Mining Areas" Water 16, no. 22: 3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223280

APA Style

Rzetala, M. A., Machowski, R., Solarski, M., & Rzetala, M. (2024). Dynamics of Changes in the Surface Area of Water Bodies in Subsidence Basins in Mining Areas. Water, 16(22), 3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223280

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