Analysis of the Wangping Brownfield Using a Two-Step Urban Brownfield Redevelopment Model

Abstract

With societal progress, urban brownfields have become restrictive, and redevelopment studies have become an important part of urban renewal. In this work, we developed a two-step model for urban brownfield redevelopment, while considering the Wangping brownfield as the study area. Site suitability evaluation models for brownfield parks, agricultural picking gardens, and creative industrial centers were developed based on the elevation, slope, and surface runoff, and the evaluation results were categorized into five levels. The redevelopment plan was formulated based on these evaluation results. To study the effect of the plan, a transition matrix of land use was assessed using satellite images and the cellular automata (CA)–Markov model; based on the analysis, we predicted the land use situation of the Wangping brownfield, with respect to natural development, for 2030. A comparison of the redevelopment planning with the forecasted results revealed that the proportions of grassland, construction, and unused land decreased by 25.68, 3.12, and 2.38% and those of plowland and forest land increased by 6.61 and 24.57%. This confirms the advantages of redevelopment planning for restoring plowland and increasing biological carbon sinks. Notably, our two-step urban brownfield redevelopment model can enrich the current research on urban brownfields and guide similar urban renewal projects.

1. Introduction

During modern industrialization, industrial areas were built in the suburbs of cities worldwide. However, to enhance the competitiveness of cities in the global economy, several countries are carrying out internal structural adjustments; many former industrial areas have been moved to the suburbs, creating brownfield sites inside cities (which are abandoned/underutilized areas that were previously used by industries). Brownfields are generally identified as struggling urban areas and are found mainly in urban centers or peri-urban/rural areas that are heavily industrialized [1]. The International City/County Management Association (ICMA) has defined brownfields as “rural or urban industrial and commercial sites that are abandoned or underused because of real or perceived contamination” [2]. In the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), brownfields are recognized as “real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant” [3]. Other definitions exist, including the following: “brownfields are abandoned, vacant, derelict, idled or underutilized industrial or commercial property in the urban area with an active potential for redevelopment, where redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination, building deterioration/obsolescence, and/or inadequate infrastructure” [4]. Although there are different definitions, the majority of them emphasize “brownfields” as land areas that are in an “abandoned” state, which preserve traces of the past and hinder the development of the city [5].

According to the World Bank’s 2005 report entitled “Waste Management in China: Issues and Recommendations”, China has become “the world’s largest waste generator”, and “there are likely at least 5000 brownfields now in Chinese cities” [6]. By 2014, China had over 1 million km² of brownfields [7]. These reports have identified brownfields as a top problem for Chinese sustainable development. Since 1982, when the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China first stipulated principles to prevent and control land use and brownfield pollution, China has adopted the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Land Administration, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Protection, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution Caused by Solid Waste, and the Environmental Quality Standard for Soils, laying the foundation for the protection of soil through basic principles, supervision, and management, as well as measures for land management. Since 2000, the concept of “brownfields” has gradually emerged, and national policies involving the prevention and control of soil, groundwater, and heavy metal pollution have been developed. Guidelines, including the risk assessment, remediation, and detection of contaminated sites, have been issued. These regulations and standards offer planning guidance for heavy metal pollution and the relocation, investigation, and prevention of groundwater pollution. In 2018, China enacted the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Soil Pollution, the first law directly linked to brownfields, which established soil pollution standards, a census, testing, risk management, and remediation. With proposed policy concepts including healthy China and carbon neutrality, laws and regulations have more detailed management requirements for industrial and mining land, relocation, hazardous waste, and tailing ponds. These pieces of legislation provide technical guidance for the control and remediation of soil pollution in contaminated sites and construction land (

Table 1. Brownfield management documents in China.

Phase	Year	Document
1: Soil environment protection	1982	Constitution of the People’s Republic of China
	1986	Law of the People’s Republic of China on Land Administration
	1989	Law of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Protection
	1995	Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution Caused by Solid Waste
		Environmental quality standard for soils
	1999	Environmental quality risk assessment criteria for soil at manufacturing facilities
2: Soil pollution control	2001	National Tenth Five-Year Plan Of Environmental Protection
	2002	Law of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Impact Assessment
	2003	National Plan for the Construction of Hazardous Waste and Medical Waste Disposal Facilities
	2004	Notice on effectively doing environmental pollution prevention and control in the process of relocation of enterprises
	2008	Opinions on strengthening soil pollution prevention and control
	2011	The Twelfth Five-Year Plan for comprehensive prevention and control of heavy metal pollution
		National Groundwater Pollution Control Planning (2011–2015)
	2013	Arrangements for soil environmental protection and comprehensive management in the near future
	2014	Notice on Strengthening pollution prevention and control in the process of closure, relocation and redevelopment of original sites of industrial enterprises
		Opinions on implementing third-party environmental pollution control
		Technical Guidelines for Environment Site Investigation
		Technical Guidelines for Environmental Monitoring of Sites
		Guidelines for Risk Assessment of Contaminated Sites
		Guidelines for Soil Remediation of Contaminated Sites
3: Soil risk control	2016	Soil Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
		Measures for the management of soil environment in polluted plots
	2017	Technical Regulations on Risk Screening and Risk Classification for closed and relocated enterprise Plots
	2018	Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Soil Pollution
		Technical guideline for identification and assessment of environmental damage—Environmental elements—Part 1: Soil and groundwater
		Measures for the Management of Soil Environment for Industrial and Mining Land
		Soil environmental quality Risk control standard for soil contamination of development land
		Technical guidelines for environmental impact assessment—soil environment
	2019	Guidelines for evaluation of risk assessment, risk control and restoration effect assessment report of soil pollution investigation on construction land
		Technical guidelines for investigation on soil contamination of land for construction
		Technical guidelines for monitoring during risk control and remediation of soil contamination of land for construction
		Technical guidelines for soil remediation of land for construction
		Opinions on exploring the use of market-oriented ways to promote ecological restoration in mines
	2020	Measures for the Administration of soil pollution Prevention Fund
	2021	Measures for the credit Administration of construction land soil pollution risk control and restoration of practitioners and individuals
		Measures for the administration of funds for soil pollution prevention and control
	2022	The 14th Five-Year Plan for Environmental Health work
		Guidelines for Investigation, Supervision and Inspection of Soil Pollution on Construction Land
		Technical Regulations on Quality Control of Soil Pollution Survey for Construction Land
		Technical guideline for deriving hazardous waste management plans and records
		Implementation plan for synergistic efficiency in reducing pollution and carbon
		Guidelines for the Inspection and Treatment of Potential Pollution Hazards in tailings ponds
		Measures for the prevention and control of environmental pollution by tailings
		Opinions on further strengthening prevention and control of heavy metal pollution
		Implementation plan on Accelerating the comprehensive utilization of industrial resources
		Notification of the pilot of the collection of hazardous waste of small and micro enterprises
		The 14th Five-Year Plan for the protection of soil, groundwater and rural ecological environment
	2023	Technical specifications of contaminated soil remediation—Biopiling
		Technical specifications of contaminated soil remediation solidification/stabilization

). Xuhui Ding et al. (2024) [8] pointed out that the policy guidelines based on local conditions could promote the orderly transfer of polluting industries in the Yangtze River Economic Belt and avoid the expansion of soil pollution. Similarly, Matteo Francioni et al. (2020) [9] pointed out that, in central Italy, different cultivation systems profoundly affected soil carbon storage.

Through these documents, we found that brownfield redevelopment in China revolves around two core areas:

• How to evaluate the suitability of urban brownfield redevelopment;
• How to evaluate the effect of brownfield redevelopment.

Large-scale brownfield redevelopment will be critical for promoting sustainable urban development in China. The first problem to be solved is how to evaluate the suitability of brownfield redevelopment. In recent years, suitability evaluations have been extended to include the development of territorial spaces, while including aspects such as transportation and location advantages and performing an ecological evaluation to delimit the regions that are suitable for development [10]. First, the systematic identification of the number and location of brownfield sites based on multi-source data (urban land use status maps, Baidu heat maps, commercial data, and Baidu Street View) must be accomplished for genuine redevelopment [11]. Next, an evaluation of the primary pollutants and pollution characteristics in brownfields [12], an analysis of their risks to human health and the environment [13], and a formulation of corresponding control measures [14] to prevent major public health events must be undertaken [15]. To improve the redevelopment of brownfields, researchers have investigated the redevelopment of brownfields [16] and proposed that a new method and framework should be developed to achieve consistency between the characteristics of brownfields and the redevelopment mode [17] for sustainable redevelopment. Zhao and Zhou [18] built a conceptual model for evaluating the suitability of land in Chengdu for urban brownfield renewal, from the perspectives of the site conditions, public transportation layout, ecological environment superiority, and public facility convenience. Jian et al. [19] developed a brownfield redevelopment evaluation index system based on the structure–process–outcome framework, and the evaluation model was constructed based on the continuous ordered weighted averaging (C-OWA) operator topology method. Tendero and Bazart [20] analyzed the determinants of people’s dissatisfaction with contaminated brownfield redevelopment in France. Most brownfield redevelopment studies regard brownfields as a whole. However, due to geographical differences throughout brownfields (caused by uneven pollution, topography, and relief), it is challenging to efficiently redevelop the brownfield as a whole. Therefore, the primary problem this paper seeks to overcome is the formulation of appropriate redevelopment methods for each segment of brownfields according to diverse internal conditions.

Most current studies focus on ensuring the implementation of redevelopment projects and provide risk control suggestions by assessing the cooperation mode or funding risks in redevelopment projects. Yang, M. et al. [21] identified that brownfield redevelopment projects may not be executed smoothly due to policy, the economy, and ecology. Han, Q.Y. et al. [22] used the Delphi method and the interpretative structural model to establish an approach for assessing the risks of the public–private partnership cooperation mode in brownfield redevelopment. These studies do not predict the effects of brownfield redevelopment 5, 10, or more years after implementation, which is essential. Through this process, we can understand the association between the natural and artificial environments, overcome disordered growth, and attain stable land use. CA–Markov is a combination of cellular automata (CA) and the Markov chain model and can accurately predict spatiotemporal dynamic changes in land use [23,24]. Megersa et al. (2023) [25] built a stochastic model of urban growth using the CA–Markov chain and multi-scenario prospects for the humid tropical region of Ethiopia. Hua and Gani (2023) [26] studied urban sprawl and used a CA–Markov model to predict sustainable urban growth scenarios. Some scholars applied the model to analyze crop yields (Mokarram and Mokarram, 2022) [27], pests (Liu and Zhang, 2022) [28], flood risk (Wu et al., 2024) [29], and forest land cover change predictions (Asif et al., 2023) [30]. However, no studies have leveraged this model for brownfield redevelopment. In this study, the CA–Markov model was employed to predict and compare the land use of brownfields under artificial redevelopment and natural development. Moreover, it evaluated the economic and social benefits brought by the redevelopment, accounted for the shortcomings of traditional evaluation systems, and ensured sustainability.

In this work, we considered the Wangping brownfield in Beijing (China) as the study area and developed a two-step brownfield redevelopment model based on the “suitability evaluation+effect evaluation” concept. We used analytic hierarchy process (AHP) analysis and GIS software (Arcmap 10.6) to evaluate the suitability of the redevelopment of different brownfield plots. Brownfield redevelopment planning was designed based on the evaluation results and design method of landscape planning. The CA–Markov model was used to predict the land use situation in the brownfield area by 2030, for the conditions of human and natural development, to determine the effects of redevelopment planning (Figure 1). This study provides new ideas for the redevelopment of urban brownfield land from the perspectives of environmental science and urban planning.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The Wangping brownfield is located in Wangping town, Mentougou district, Beijing, China, with the Yongding River to the east and the Jiulong Mountain to the west. There are 4 communities and 16 villages in the target brownfield (Figure 2A). Historically, the Wangping brownfield was one of the eight major mining areas in western Beijing, with coal mining being the leading industry in the region. Since 2004, it has closed its coal plants, sand and brick factories, and other resource-based enterprises that belong to the Wangping coal mine, and has entered the stage of industrial transformation. Under the influence of coal mining, several underground goaf areas have complex geological conditions. In addition to the lack of follow-up management and restoration measures, the ecological environments of such brownfields have been destroyed, mainly due to geological damage, water pollution, and biodiversity loss, resulting in difficulties in redevelopment (Figure 2B). With the advancement of China’s ecological civilization, the Wangping brownfield is used to actively promote the integrated development of ecological conservation, tourism, culture, sports, and leisure. Focusing on the functional positioning of ecological conservation, the brownfield can be used to strengthen the construction of the ecological environment, improve the living environment, and enhance the human environment, while promoting the construction of a rural ecological civilization. Therefore, we selected the Wangping brownfield for the suitability evaluation and for predicting the effects of the proposed redevelopment plan.

2.2. Data Source

The land use RS monitoring data used in this study were obtained from the National Catalogue Service for Geographic Information (https://www.webmap.cn/, accessed on 15 april 2024). RS images, with cloud cover <10%, from early May to mid-October in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 were selected and combined with auxiliary data, such as topographic and administrative boundary maps of the study area, to obtain a single low-spatial reflectance (LSR) image. All the data were based on Landsat 5 images, and the interpretation accuracy reached 95%. The images exhibited good characteristics and met the requirements for this study.

We used advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer global digital elevation model (ASTER GDEM) data, with a spatial resolution of 30 m, derived from the geospatial data cloud (https://www.gscloud.cn/, accessed on 15 April 2024)). The elevation, slope, surface runoff, and other data were obtained using ArcGIS 10.8 (Figure S1).

The rainfall data was derived from the National Earth System Science Data Center (http://www.geodata.cn/main/, accessed on 15 April 2024)). The data on roads, residential areas, and administrative boundaries were obtained from the National Geomatics Center of China (https://www.ngcc.cn/, accessed on 15 April 2024)) (Figure S2).

To analyze the current brownfield surface situation, we used Google Earth to obtain the data on vegetation, roads, and buildings in Wangping town, along with the specific internal data of the Wangping brownfield obtained from field investigations (laser rangefinder measurements, drone recordings, and on-site hand-drawn drawings). SketchUp was used to establish the current situation model of the Wangping brownfield.

2.3. Methods

This study was divided into two stages: an evaluation of the redevelopment suitability and a prediction of the redevelopment effects.

2.3.1. Evaluation Model of Redevelopment Suitability

(1)

Index collection

Because of coal mining in the Wangping brownfield, there are several underground goaf areas with complex geological conditions that are not conducive to the construction of new buildings. Therefore, this study considers new structures and the restoration of surface vegetation as the main directions for redevelopment. Combined with local reality and expert opinions, we adopted a brownfield park, agricultural picking garden, and creative industry center as a means of redeveloping the Wangping brownfield. In this study, the reasonable distribution of these three areas in the Wangping brownfield was the key to assessing the suitability of the area for redevelopment. Creative industry centers need more buildings to realize the functions of sightseeing, offices, catering, etc. Several buildings in the Wangping coal mine factory have been left abandoned; they have a strong industrial atmosphere and preserve the characteristics of the industrial period, while containing profound historical and cultural values that meet the site selection needs of the creative industry center. It was difficult to determine the locations of the brownfield park and agricultural picking garden. As agricultural picking gardens must be planted over a large area, they have high requirements for soil quality, climate, topography, and other site selection factors. Brownfield parks need to create a variety of landscape nodes and interesting tour routes, and complex terrains can significantly reduce the cost of site construction. Because there was no obvious difference between the soil quality and climate in the Wangping brownfield, we mainly analyzed the topographic factors of the Wangping brownfield to determine a more suitable site for the brownfield park and agricultural picking garden.

We constructed two evaluation index systems to evaluate the areas suitable for redeveloping the region into the brownfield park and agricultural picking garden. The AHP 1–9 scale was used to score each factor (S_ei): the higher the score, the higher the suitability (Tables S1 and S2).

(2)

Index evaluation methods

In this study, the AHP was utilized to calculate the index weights for evaluation. This method can be used to assess a system characterized by fuzziness and data complexity to analyze indices that are difficult to quantify [31]. To avoid any discrepancies in determining the index weights, the number of experts should not be small. However, considering the operability of calculating the index weights, the number of experts should not be large. In this study, we distributed 86 questionnaires and received 49 valid responses, including 5 experts in related fields, 7 students in related fields, 12 students in other fields, 5 brownfield management organizations, and 20 nearby residents. According to the statistics, due to a lack of relevant professional knowledge, the questionnaire results from nearby residents and students in other fields exhibited a high variability, and the reliability of the data was low. Finally, we selected 15 questionnaires to determine the index weights (5 experts in related fields, 4 students in related fields, 3 brownfield management organizations, and 3 nearby residents).

In the questionnaire, a 1–9 scale approach was employed to score the relative importance of the two factors. After sorting and summarizing, the scores of each factor were compiled to form an evaluation matrix. The data in the evaluation matrix were normalized based on columns, and the processed data were added according to rows. Finally, the proportion of the sum of the data in each row in the total represented the weight of the index (W_ei). To ensure the applicability of the weights, we utilized the CR values to assess the consistency of the calculated index weights, obtaining a value of 0.068 (< 0.1, qualified) (Tables S1 and S2).

(3)

Evaluation Model Implementation

With reference to the scores and weights of each evaluation factor shown in Tables S1 and S2, the weighted overlay tool of the ArcGIS software (Arcmap 10.6) was used for the weighted analysis; the calculation formula can be expressed as follows:

$$P_e={\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{S}_{ei}\times W_{ei}}$$

(1)

where e is the evaluation area, including those of the brownfield park and agricultural picking garden; P_e is the suitability of e evaluation area, i.e., the suitability of redevelopment obtained after comprehensive analysis and calculation (the higher the score, the more suitable the area); S_ei is the score of i evaluation factor in e evaluation area: the higher the score, the more favorable the evaluation factor in the area is for redevelopment; and W_ei is the weight of i evaluation factor in e evaluation area: the larger the proportion, the more important and influential the evaluation factor is in the evaluation area.

2.3.2. Prediction Model of Redevelopment Effect

(1)

Data collection

Via ArcGIS, raster land use images of the Wangping brownfield in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 were prepared. The data were imported into IDRISI, and the land use types were reclassified into plowland, forest land, grassland, water, construction land, and unused land.

(2)

Land use transition matrix calculation method

The land use transition matrices of the Wangping brownfield during 2000–2005, 2005–2015, and 2010–2015 were calculated by the Markov model. Using the time-weighted method, the land use transition matrix during 2015–2020 was obtained based on these three matrices. Combined with the translation suitability based on roads, water, rainfall, elevation, and slope, the land use prediction of the Wangping brownfield in 2020 was calculated by the CA–Markov model. The accuracy test (kappa) was carried out between the predicted results and the actual situation in 2020. If kappa ≥ 0.75, it was considered that the transition matrix could correctly reflect the land use transition; otherwise, the transition matrix needed to be readjusted.

(3)

Prediction model implementation

A Markov chain is a continuous random process in which information is conveyed through transition matrices. Therefore, this model can simulate the processes in complex systems and is useful in long-term forecasting. In this paper, the Collection Editor tool in IDRISI was employed to extract the land use data for 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015 from the satellite images, and the Markov model was utilized to analyze and calculate the transition matrix and probability.

CA systems comprise discrete- and finite-state cells that conduct cellular transformation behavior in discrete time dimensions and are able to simulate spatial changes in a complex system. The CA space operator in the IDRISI software (IDRISI 17.0) was employed to combine the matrix transition and conditional probabilities data from 2000 to 2015, according to the Markov model. The 2015 land use map was employed as the base map to simulate the urban land use in 2020. After comparing the simulation results with the actual land use data from 2020 and using the kappa coefficient to confirm its accuracy, the transition probability data were used to predict the land use changes in the Wangping brownfield forecasted to 2030 (Figure 3).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Redevelopment Suitability Evaluation Results

Based on the data and equations shown in the Section 2, we calculated the redevelopment of the brownfield park and agricultural picking garden in the Wangping brownfield; the results are shown in Figure 4a,b, respectively. In general, the results of the two methods were very different. Hammond et al. [32] divided the output of the brownfield land use potential based on a decision support system (DSS) into six categories: development not advised (0) and very low (0.01–0.19), low (0.20–0.39), medium (0.40–0.59), high (0.60–0.79), and very high (0.80–1) potential. Feng et al. [33] divided the site suitability values of brownfields for green infrastructure (GI) planning into five categories: very low, low, medium, high, and very high priority. In this study, the evaluation results were divided into five grades, namely, “very suitable”, “suitable”, “medium”, “unsuitable”, and “very unsuitable”.

In Figure 4a, the northern and southeastern parts of the study plot (within the red line) are more suitable for the construction of brownfield parks, but the southeastern portion is less suitable. In Figure 4b, the northwest–northeast–southeast margin of the study plot (within the red line) is not suitable for agricultural gardens, and the suitability is higher in the middle and southwest of the plot. Given that there are two roads linking the south and north sides of the research plot, dividing the brownfield park and agricultural picking gardens into north or south areas was reasonable. As Wangping is located on the north side of the research plot, most of the interior houses are newly built, the permanent population is relatively large, and the age composition is relatively young, meaning that the demand for leisure and entertainment facilities is high.

On the south side of the plot is Nanjian village, where residents primarily work in agriculture. The traditional architectural features of the village are well protected, which has great potential for transformation as a tourist location. Therefore, the southern part of the plot was planned to be a brownfield park for the daily leisure and entertainment needs of the residents in Wangping and to assist the development of a beautiful new Wangping. The north side was planned to be agricultural gardens, and the Wangping brownfield traditional village ecological scenic location would be constructed with Nanjian village to integrate eating–living–sightseeing in this scenic location.

In summary, a brownfield park was developed according to the terrain and water system to display the historical context of the Wangping brownfield. To the south, agricultural gardens were developed in conjunction with the surrounding villages to attract visitors. To the east, a creative industrial park was built on the site of the Wangping coal mine to attract funds. In the western region, ecological forest areas were constructed (to restore ecology) (Figure 4c). During the redevelopment planning process, grasslands, plowland, construction land, forest land, water areas, and unused land accounted for 22.95, 6.89, 20.23, 45.82, 4.11, and 0%, respectively. The Seattle Gas Works Park in the USA adopted the design practice of minimum intervention, similar to the plan adopted in this study area, while preserving the original appearance and history of the industrial wasteland, through the demolition of some buildings, the retention of the tower, the transformation of the region into a park landmark, and the use of biological phytoremediation technology.

3.2. Redevelopment Planning

3.2.1. Brownfield Park

In the High Line Park in New York (USA), the main renovation approach was to retain the crisscrossing rails, add concrete and landscape green belts, build multiple entrances and exits, and highlight the openness of the space. In Duisburg, Germany, the main renovation approach was to comprehensively protect the overall layout and spatial structure of an old factory, retain and comprehensively utilize a variety of abandoned industrial facilities, and build multiple landscape levels into landscape spaces. In the Citroën Park in Paris, the main renovation approach was to demolish the original industrial buildings, connect the spaces of various sites in the park through the axis, and symbolically rebuild the buildings.

Referring to the above-mentioned design practice, the road design in Wangping brownfield park was divided into two levels. The first level contained the main road around the park for visitors to walk and park vehicles, with a design width of 5 m. The secondary road was a pedestrian sightseeing road, only for walking to a landscape node, with a design width of 1.5 m. Four large landscape nodes in the park radiated eleven small landscape nodes. In the specific design of the landscape nodes, the particularity of the mine park was fully considered. The aboveground and underground landscapes were combined to fully display the mining engineering that was carried out in the region and maintain the aesthetic elements of the industrial age. For example, the area can be used to set up rock displays, provide surface–wellhead facility viewing, and display underground mining operations (Figure 5a)

3.2.2. Agricultural Picking Garden

The Wangping brownfield is located in Mentougou, a district that aims to develop leisure agriculture. The new picking garden in the Wangping brownfield will help break through the dilemma and promote interactions between Wangping and the surrounding areas. Yuan et al. [34], in their study on village renewal in Laizhou (China), indicated that building large village clusters is conducive to improving the efficient utilization of resources within the clusters, while continuously increasing their competitive advantages. Therefore, we considered the southern area of the Wangping brownfield as the site for an agricultural picking garden, and the existing village was developed as the supporting infrastructure for the picking garden to form a new rural economic growth point that integrates food, housing, and tourism. Zasada and Piorr [35] studied the villages in Brandenburg (Germany) and revealed the importance of diversifying non-agricultural activities (such as tourism) in boosting the rural economy. The existing facilities in the villages considered in this study were relatively good, the difficulty in transformation was low, and the investment requirements were small. Notably, the characteristics of villages and towns can be integrated with self-production, self-marketing, and green development, which can solve problems related to the lack of funds and weak initiatives. Considering the seasonality and periodicity of crop growth, the entire picking garden was divided into four areas that could fully recover the land, while meeting the needs of tourists during the four seasons, to ensure and improve the quality of crop fruits and achieve high-quality sustainable development. Strawberry seedlings (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.), loquats [Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.], pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), and pomelo [Citrus maxima (Burm) Merr.] were selected as the cash crops (Figure 5b).

3.2.3. Creative Industry Center

The Wangping coal mine used to be a part of the Fengsha railway line and provided freight to and from the coal plant. However, it has now been completely shut down, leaving behind dilapidated platforms and barren tracks. The peeling banners at the factory gate and on the transportation station platform denote the prosperity of the Wangping coal mine at that time. Buildings and facilities with the characteristics of the last century’s great industrialization era and factory characteristics can become a new attraction point for factories and attract investors and tourists. With the complete shutdown of the Wangping coal mine in 1994, the buildings in the plant were ignored for a long time and damaged to varying degrees. However, owing to the special usage requirements of the factory buildings, there were special requirements for the bearing structure of the main internal body during construction, with most of the buildings having durable and firm characteristics. Therefore, the main production buildings still retain a relatively complete structural framework, which can withstand transformation techniques and can be used to create new architectural functions, architectural shapes, and spatial forms.

A staff dormitory is a living building within a factory. Owing to the lack of special reinforcement measures at the beginning of the design stage and the uneven settlement of the foundation over several years, the building developed cracks, the internal stairs collapsed, and the load-bearing parts, such as the beams and columns, were significantly deformed; the repair cost was too high. Therefore, the area was planned to be rebuilt on-site after demolition. After reconstruction, the upper part of the building could be used as the main office of the park, and the lower part could be restored to the living parts of the factory at the time, e.g., workers’ bathroom and a restaurant. New and old elements coexist in the design, seek unity in the collision, maintain the unity of the overall color style, and seek innovation in function and detail. The graphic design of the “C” shape of the office area and the enclosed small square inward area were conducive to maintaining the relative independence of the work area and avoiding outdoor disturbance in the work area. At the same time, paying attention to the factory environment, the original chimney in the new building design was retained as an industrial element marker, increasing the vitality of the work area and rendering a certain work atmosphere in the square space. The original coal pile yard was open and flat, and a small finishing area could become an industrial landscape square. The oil tanks, machine tools, grids, and other structures originally scattered in the park were integrated, rearranged, and combined with the paving and plant designs to form a landscape square that could be used for sightseeing and as a recreation space.

The production workshop and warehouse also partially retained the production equipment and special structures that depicted the industrial era, e.g., the ox leg, stepped columns, and crane beam, which rendered a strong atmosphere of the industrial era. As a large space, the internal structure of the park was simple; the space was high and had fewer restrictions on the replacement function, making it an excellent site for use as a studio and exhibition hall and as a venue for catering and other functions. Thus, it was necessary to make full use of the industrial facilities and structures left behind in the plant to reflect its unique aesthetic value and fully consider the principle of symbiosis between the old and new elements. From the perspective of space design, the unique spatial combination relationship of the building group was fully reflected in the proposed plan, e.g., open workshops, high- and low-staggered freight transmission corridors, and open freight loading and unloading sites. When people enter the production workshop from an outdoor space, it should feel like they are entering the operation core of a large industrial machine. Placing, hoisting, inlaying, and other methods were used to fully display and restore the production history of the Wangping coal mine at that time, so that the visitor can fully experience the atmosphere of the industrial era. At the same time, the production workshop and warehouse structure had to be simple and strong and retain the original load-bearing structure. The enclosure structure can obtain greater freedom of transformation, which provides great convenience and possibilities for planning new functions.

We proposed retaining the original railway elements, repairing and rebuilding the old site of the transport class, and building a catering area that integrates food and landscape leisure. Notably, the introduction of the locomotive model can not only fully restore the production and transportation scene at that time but also serve as a special catering area, becoming one of the highlights of the park. Some industrial structures scattered in the factories, e.g., oil tanks, chimneys, large production machine tools, conveyor belts, and other equipment, can be reshaped using modern art methods and then integrated into the park. These special symbols of the industrial era can be reshaped into structures, e.g., displaying landscape sketches in the factory, to improve the functional space, create a more hierarchical sense of the space, and create a richer work, life, and visiting experience (Figure 6).

In a study on brownfield redevelopment in Futian, Shenzhen (China), Cheng et al. [36] indicated that the determination of redevelopment priorities was greatly influenced by the site’s physical condition, infrastructure, financing, and marketability and its potential to create social benefits and improve environmental conditions. Cheng et al. [37] also reached a similar conclusion in their study on the redevelopment of industrial land in Shenzhen, China. In the design of the creative industry center in our study area, the existing infrastructure and other physical conditions of the site can be fully utilized to create a three-in-one park that integrates the office, leisure, and business; this can ensure the availability of funds and improve the transformation potential of the park in subsequent implementation processes while rendering social benefits and improving the ecological environment of the Wangping brownfield.

3.2.4. Plant Design

In the design of the vegetation in the park, we considered the heights of different plants and the different seasons of plant appreciation; the plant types were rationally allocated to portray the richness and year-round nature of the landscape level in the park. Because this plot was originally used for the coal mining industry, the soil contained heavy metals and harmful elements, such as phosphorus and sulfur. Guarino et al. [38] indicated that metal immobilization in the brownfields of Italian steelworks through phytoremediation strategies effectively improved the soil structure and increased the soil organic matter content and microbial biomass, thereby offering great value for the restoration of the natural environment. Wechtler et al. [39] studied native plants growing in a brownfield site in France and revealed that these plants, known as accumulator plants, had a better ability to extract trace metals from the soil and decrease soil trace metal contamination. Dickinson et al. [40] confirmed the possibility of using hyperaccumulator plants for soil restoration in brownfields.

Therefore, it is necessary to configure the plant design in parks while combining the plants with hyperaccumulators. In this study, hyperaccumulators, such as Magnolia grandiflora Linn., Paulownia tpmentosa (Thunb.) Steud., and Commelina communis L., were combined with local plants, such as Rosa xanthina Lindl., Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz., and Ginkgo biloba L. (

Table 2. Main plants selected for the redevelopment of the Wangping brownfield.

Species	No.	Name	Hyperaccumulator	Local Territory Plant	Florescence	Fruit Stage
Trees	1	Magnolia grandiflora Linn.	Y	Y	May–June	September–October
	2	Paulownia tpmentosa (Thunb.) Steud.	Y	Y	April–May	August–September
	3	Ginkgo biloba L.	N	Y	April–May	September–October
	4	Ulmus pumila L.	N	Y	March–June	March–June
	5	Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle	N	Y	April–May	August–October
	6	Salix babylonica Linn. f. babylonica	N	Y	April	April–May
	7	Acer spp.	N	Y	April–May	September–October
Shrubs	1	Euonymus japonicus Thunb.	Y	Y	May–June	July–October
	2	Vitex negundo Linn. var. cannabifolia (Sieb. et Zucc.) Hand.-Mazz.	Y	Y	June–July	August–November
	3	Rosa xanthina Lindl.	N	Y	May–June	July–August
	4	Syringa oblata Lindl.	N	Y	March–June	June–September
	5	Lagerstroemia indica L.	N	Y	June–September	September–December
	6	Chionanthus retusus Lindl. et Paxt.	N	Y	June–July	September–October
	7	Cotinus coggygria Scop.	N	Y	May–June	July–August
	8	Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl	N	Y	March–April	July–September
Grass	1	Commelina communis Linn.	Y	N	May–September	June–November
	2	Elsholtzia splendens Nakai ex F. Maekawa	Y	N	September–November	September–November
	3	Symphyotrichum subulatum (Michx.) G.L.Nesom	Y	N	September–November	September–November
	4	Sedum alfredii Hance	Y	N	April–May	June–August
	5	Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.	Y	Y	April–October	April–October
	6	Iris lactea Pall.	N	Y	May–June	June–September
	7	Abelmoschus manihot (Linn.) Medicus	Y	Y	February–August	August–September
	8	Festuca elata Keng ex E. B. Alexeev	N	Y	April–August	April–August

).

3.3. Predicting the Effects of the Proposed Redevelopment Plan

3.3.1. Land Use Transition Matrix in 2000–2020

Owing to the small scope of the Wangping brownfield and the limited data considered in this study, there would be a large deviation if the land transition matrix was formulated accordingly; the results would not be valuable for reference. Therefore, we expanded the selection scope of the land use transition matrix: the land use transition matrix of the Mentougou district was considered to represent that of the Wangping brownfield, and the land use prediction for the Wangping brownfield for 2030 was carried out based on these data (Figure 7 and Tables S3 and S4).

As presented above, the land use transition matrices in Mentougou district from 2000 to 2015 are similar, mainly pertaining to the changes from plowland and forest land to developed land. This indicates that the population and economy of Mentougou district developed over the study period. Urbanization was obvious, the demand for construction land increased, and the cultivated land and forest land were being eroded. However, because Mentougou district is mountainous, natural factors influence its development. Therefore, the rate of land use transition was slow, and the amount was small. After 2015, when the Chinese government began attaching importance to the environment, it issued ecological protection measures. During this period, the transition of various other land types to forest land was clear, of which the largest proportion was plowland, potentially attributed to the “returning plowland to forest” policy. As the urban center of Beijing moved southeast, the population of Mentougou district was lost, the demand for urban construction was lowered, and the urban construction land was transformed into forest land, plowland, and grassland. Yi et al. [41] reached a similar conclusion in their study on the spatiotemporal evolution, prediction, and optimization of land use and cover change (LUCC) in Mentougou in 2022.

China announced aims in 2020 to achieve a carbon peak by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060. Since then, governments at all levels have promoted green and low-carbon transformations of urban and rural development, accelerated the optimization of rural land use, formulated a series of documents and norms, and strengthened the development of green and low-carbon technologies across cities, counties, villages, communities, and buildings. This enables a new mode of green, low-carbon, and circular development. For instance, in “Opinions on the complete, accurate, and comprehensive implementation of the new development concept to do a good job of carbon peak carbon neutral work” (September 2021), accelerating the large-scale promotion of low-carbon urban and rural construction is promoted. In the “Implementation plan for synergistic efficiency in reducing pollution and carbon” (June 2022), increasing the proportion of green space is advocated. In the “Action plan for peaking carbon in urban and rural construction” (July 2022), controlling the growth of carbon emissions in urban and rural construction and effectively accomplishing carbon peaking in urban and rural construction are proposed.

In the design of the 2020–2030 land use change matrix of Mentougou, we emphasized the important location of forest land in future developments and increased the probability of the conversion of other types of land to forest land. Correspondingly, given the policy of “returning plowland to forest” in the Mentougou area, we expect an increase in plowland in the future. Construction land will gradually decrease due to the eastward movement of urban centers and will be transformed into plowland and forest land, together with unused land and grassland (

Table 3. Transition matrix of land use in Mentougou district in 2020–2030 (kappa: 0.89).

	Grassland	Plowland	Construction Land	Forest Land	Water	Unused Land
Grassland	0.4520	0.5068	0.0114	0.0043	0.0255	0.0000
Plowland	0.0404	0.8418	0.0502	0.0120	0.0547	0.0009
Construction land	0.0151	0.1534	0.7803	0.0102	0.0397	0.0013
Forest land	0.0598	0.1115	0.0533	0.7173	0.0651	0.0000
Water	0.1790	0.1013	0.0832	0.0183	0.6182	0.0000
Unused land	0.0000	0.2146	0.0753	0.0000	0.0000	0.7101

).

3.3.2. Land Use Prediction for 2030

Because of the cycle of construction and plant growth, it takes approximately 5–10 years (from the beginning of implementation) for a planning scheme to achieve the planned vegetation coverage. Therefore, in this study, we believe that the planned land use and vegetation coverage can be achieved by 2030. We compared the land use in the redevelopment plan with the land use predictions for 2030 while considering natural development.

We used the land use maps of 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 to analyze the trends in the land use changes. Combined with the physical data, such as those related to roads, water systems, and rainfall, the CA–Markov model was used to predict the land use of the Wangping brownfield in 2030 (Figure 8). According to this prediction, by 2030, 48.63, 0.28, 23.35, 21.25, 4.11, and 2.38% of the total brownfield land will be grassland, plowland, construction land, forest land, water area, and unused land, respectively.

3.3.3. Comparison with the Redevelopment Planning

By comparison, the proportions of grassland, construction land, and unused land decreased by 25.68, 3.12, and 2.38%, respectively; the proportions of plowland and forest land increased by 6.61 and 24.57%, respectively; and the proportion of water areas did not change.

These changes were mainly due to the following reasons: (1) Ecological restoration measures were adopted in the redevelopment plan, including the restoration of surface vegetation on the original grassland, the planting of trees and shrubs with higher ecological value, an increase in the carbon sink capacity of surface plants, a reduction in soil erosion, and the restoration of ecological diversity. (2) The agricultural picking garden was added to restore the plowland and create a new economic growth point in the Wangping brownfield to attract visitors and improve the economic conditions of the residents. (3) We replanned the Wangping coal mine site, reduced the area of idle construction land, integrated the brownfield park, provided leisure and entertainment places for residents and tourists, and improved the infrastructure construction of the area.

3.4. Implementation of the Redevelopment Project

Although brownfield redevelopment projects have the potential to promote the environment, quality of life, and economy, there are risks and uncertainties due to existing or potential pollution and multiple stakeholders like governments, polluting enterprises, developers, and local residents. To ensure the implementation of brownfield redevelopment projects, the following strategies are proposed:

(1)

Clarify legal responsibilities.

Projects should clearly define the rights and obligations of each participant, adhere to the principle of “who pollutes, cleans up”, clarify the responsibilities of enterprises and governments in treating contaminated sites, and be bound by legal responsibilities. This can not only effectively limit the soil pollution caused by discharge but also overcome the problem of treatment after pollution.

(2)

Implement risk control.

Risk identification should be performed in advance, and targeted risk early warning mechanisms and countermeasures should be formulated. Early in projects, market analysis and risk analysis should be performed, and possible risks should be fully considered. During the project implementation, by assessing the specific pollution and migration routes of brownfields, specific redevelopment plans can be formulated for treatment. The implementation of effective risk management can overcome problems in brownfields, control pollutant migration, and greatly reduce the cost of brownfield redevelopment.

(3)

Explore financing channels.

Government regulation and guidance are critical driving forces to realize brownfield redevelopment financing, and the redevelopment of brownfields requires government coordination. By forming relevant planning laws and regulations and implementing policies, governments can guide enterprises to invest, provide pre-construction funds for brownfield governance, and alleviate financial pressures. Correspondingly, for some contaminated sites where those responsible cannot be identified due to bankruptcy or a change in property rights, governments should establish a special fund to assist in site redevelopment.

Due to the limited financial resources of governments, it may not be possible to fully rely on them to bear the cost of brownfield redevelopment. We should adopt public–private partnerships to broaden access to brownfield redevelopment funds. According to the “who invests, benefits” principle, a diversified investment system for brownfield redevelopment has been established. By establishing financing platforms like investment companies and institutional innovation, there has been a development from single financial allocations and bank loans to trust financing, resource development, BOT, and other financing methods. This approach actively encourages private institutions to participate in brownfield redevelopment, promoting cooperation between private enterprises and government and forming an interested community in profit and risk sharing.

(4)

Establish a multi-subject participation mechanism.

In brownfield redevelopment projects, we should mobilize the enthusiasm of governments at all levels, including non-governmental organizations, enterprises, communities, and other interest groups, to participate in brownfield management. In addition to those responsible for pollution and governments, developers and non-profit organizations are essential stakeholders in brownfield redevelopment. Governments can encourage market entities to participate in brownfield development via taxation and low-interest loans, increase the enthusiasm of developers, and cultivate social brownfield environmental governance to encourage participation. To avoid excessive market incentives, redevelopment projects should establish sound public participation and supervision mechanisms to protect public interests in brownfield redevelopment.

A high degree of community engagement is an important part of brownfield redevelopment. Building community capacity can enhance project acceptance, increase resident satisfaction, and promote the overall development of community via education, communication, and participatory research. We should attach importance to collaborating with community leaders, utilizing diverse communication skills, educating community members, and empowering residents in these projects. On the one hand, we should increase community access to redevelopment information and strengthen community capacity via professional groups. On the other hand, we should transfer power to the community to solve concerned problems and improve residents’ participation and satisfaction. A high level of community engagement will provide residents with more sense of power and control and ensure the fairness and sustainability of the redevelopment and the long-term well-being of residents.

4. Conclusions

With the transformation of China’s industrial structure and the development of new energy, the number of brownfields in cities has been increasing; this has become a difficult problem in city development. In the context of urban renewal, brownfield redevelopment is challenged by complex issues, such as environmental governance and multi-stakeholder participation. Therefore, the main goal of this study was to develop a scientific and reasonable brownfield redevelopment model. Taking the Wangping brownfield as an example, we developed a two-step redevelopment model based on “suitability evaluation + effect evaluation”. Based on the evaluation of the suitability of the site, the redevelopment plan for the Wangping brownfield was formulated. The land use situation of the Wangping brownfield under redevelopment planning in 2030 was compared with that in the natural state.

This model not only evaluated the suitability of the renovation of various blocks in the brownfield, which could effectively guide the redevelopment of the brownfield, but also predicted the effect of the redevelopment plan and evaluated the ecological, economic, and social benefits of the plan. This model requires all satellite image data, comprising DEMs and road, water, and land use, which are easily obtained and can be applied to various types of brownfields across various regions. The two main evaluation methods used in this model were the AHP and the CA–Markov model. There are relatively mature supporting software approaches, including MATLAB (Matlab 2023), GIS (Arcmap 10.6), and IDRISI (IDRISI 17.0), which are convenient for scholars to modify and improve the model and offer a good platform for further studies. The model proposed in this work can account for the shortcomings of traditional models of brownfield redevelopment suitability, improve the evaluation of brownfield redevelopment, provide a more comprehensive evaluation for decision-makers, and ensure that brownfield redevelopment is not a hypothetical case but a real project. In the future, we will analyze more brownfield sites across different situations, focus on optimizing the selection of indicators and the development of evaluations, improve the accuracy and applicability of the model, explore new redevelopment strategies, and enrich the research achievements in brownfield redevelopment. Notably, our two-step urban brownfield redevelopment model can enrich current research on urban brownfields, guiding similar urban renewal projects.