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Article

Performance Evaluation and Degradation Analysis of Suspended Dense Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement under Conditions of Freezing and Thawing

by
Haihong Deng
1,
Kainan Huang
2,*,
Fei Wu
3,* and
Yinghan Wang
3
1
Southern Engineering Consulting Supervision Co., Ltd. of China Railway First Survey and Design Institute, Zhuhai 519000, China
2
Guangxi Transportation Science and Technology Group Co., Ltd., Nanning 530007, China
3
College of Transportation, Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(6), 1828; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061828
Submission received: 6 May 2024 / Revised: 2 June 2024 / Accepted: 10 June 2024 / Published: 15 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Advanced Materials in Road Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
A suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement is a commonly employed material in roadworks, which is vulnerable to harm caused by freezing and thawing processes. This investigation intends to evaluate the laboratory behavior and the characteristics of freezing and thawing process-induced deterioration in a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement with suspended dense grading, employing mechanical examinations and acoustical methods. The rate of mass loss in the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement progressively rises, and the rate of decline in the compressive strength could potentially intensify as freezing and thawing processes augment. The modulus of resilience diminishes as freezing and thawing processes progress, and ultrasonic wave velocity also decreases. The patterns of mass loss, compressive strength decline, resilience modulus reduction, and ultrasonic wave velocity alteration adhere to a parabolic fitting relationship with freeze–thaw cycles, with an R2 above 0.95. The curves depicting the relationship of mass, compressive strength, resilience modulus, and ultrasonic wave velocity exhibit a steeper trend significantly after 10–15 cycles, which can be ascribed to the emergence of microcracks and the progression of flaws within the material. The evolution of damage in the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement is monitored to progress through three distinct stages based on acoustic emission: initial, stationary, and failure. As freezing and thawing processes accumulate to 20 cycles, the length of initial phase correspondingly rises to three times, the length of failure stage diminishes to about one fifth.

1. Introduction

The enduringness and resilience of roadway foundations are crucial prerequisites for safeguarding the lifespan and safety of road networks in the realm of civil engineering [1,2]. Owing to its longevity and cost-efficiency, crushed stone aggregate is frequently employed as a material in road building, commonly functioning as a subordinate base material [3,4]. However, the material remains susceptible to freezing and thawing deterioration, causing a decrement in its mechanical characteristics and endurance, ultimately resulting in untimely failure [5,6,7]. Freezing and thawing deterioration arises as water confined inside it freezes in chilly weather conditions, undergoes expansion, and then melts in warmer periods. This phenomenon leads to microstructural alterations that could undermine the material’s integrity [8]. To address this challenge, stabilization of the crushed stone base frequently involves the utilization of cement and a gradation design, thereby enriching the resistance to freezing and thawing processes [9]. However, the impact of suspended dense gradation on the characteristics of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement pertaining to freezing and thawing damage remains unclear.
The freezing and thawing deterioration significantly affects both strength as well as longevity for a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement [10,11]. To enhance the durability of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement, it is essential to understand the mechanisms of freezing and thawing damage. To accomplish this objective, a blend of test techniques as well as mathematical approaches will be utilized, encompassing indoor evaluations as well simulations. Prior research has demonstrated that the road function as well as associated attributes of broken stone road foundations stabilized by cement deteriorate with individual subsequent freezing and thawing processes [12]. A comprehensive series of tests was undertaken to mimic freezing and thawing processes as well as assess the mechanical characteristics of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. The experimental focus was on quantifying alterations in compressive strength, elastic modulus, permeability, as well as additional attributes under freezing and thawing processes. The investigation demonstrated that the cement proportion influences the temperature, moisture content, and deformation characteristics of soil stabilized by cement throughout freezing and thawing processes [13]. By incorporating cement, deformation is primarily minimized as a result of decreased water content and enhanced compaction of the structure. Wang et al. discovered that the incorporation of cement notably enhances the compaction characteristics; however, under severe freeze–thaw conditions, its strength diminishes. Consequently, they suggested a cement content of 5% for the subgrade of high-speed railways situated in cold climates [14]. Li et al. exhibited that both cement as well as micro-silica possess the capability to augment strength as well as durability for saline soil. Notably, micro-silica exhibits superior resilience to freeze–thaw cycles. [15]. In comparison to the use of cement or micro-silica solely, blends incorporating both cement and micro-silica exhibit superior operation. Rhardane et al. employed numerical techniques at the micro-level to quantitatively assess the damage mechanisms caused by freezing and thawing processes in cement-based materials [16]. They identified supercooling and delayed ice nucleation as the most detrimental factors. Additionally, the ratio of water-to-cement and the lowest temperature encountered during freeze–thaw cycles play a significant role in material degradation. However, the introduction of air bubbles can alleviate the damage. Mardani-Aghabaglou et al. discovered that the combined impact of sulfate corrosion and freeze–thaw processes on clay stabilized by cement is noteworthy, resulting in a diminished strength as well as heightened permeability. Employing sulfate-resistant cement is a more efficient means of resisting these effects compared to ordinary Portland cement [17].
To bolster the frost resistance of base materials, numerous investigations have primarily centered on the selection of altered materials, encompassing fibers and solid discards, along with optimizing preparation factors [18,19,20]. Wang et al. developed a cement-reinforced gravel blend containing 5% cement by weight and emulsified asphalt. This mixture exhibited excellent mechanical and freeze–thaw resistance properties [21]. Emulsified asphalt is capable of improving permeability, delaying the strength degradation process, alleviating frost heave stress, and reducing the rate of microcrack formation. Ding et al. noticed that incorporating fiber elevates the unconfined compressive strength of fiber-reinforced soil, and they introduced a predictive empirical model for estimating the unconfined compressive strength [22]. Increasingly, solid discards are being employed in the construction of road infrastructure. Ding et al. discovered that freezing and thawing processes have the potential to deteriorate the mechanical characteristics of tailings stabilized with cementitious materials. Nevertheless, the impact of frozen temperature on the unconfined compressive strength is not substantial [23]. Ying et al. noticed that the utilization of marine shell powder could enhance mechanical characteristics of cement-stabilized coastal clay to a certain degree. The recommended content of marine shell powder for boosting the compactness of cement-stabilized coastal clay during freezing and thawing stands at 15% [24]. A predictive empirical mathematical model was formulated to estimate the strength of marine shell powder-modified cement-stabilized coastal clay. Zhang et al. formulated a base material with a low frost susceptibility through chemical stabilization, employing fly ash, cement, and fibers to boost soil frost tolerance [25]. However, utilization of a base material with a low frost susceptibility might exert a detrimental effect on the compaction quality of a road foundation, raise project expenses, as well as result in more pronounced structural stiffness variation.
Concurrently, employing non-intrusive inspection methods is crucial for evaluating freeze–thaw deterioration in cement-solidified granular base materials. Non-intrusive inspection techniques, such as ultrasonic examination and sound emission, provide profound understanding of internal composition as well as potential deterioration without inflicting damage on materials [26,27]. Li et al. developed a sustainable pavement base material composed of cement- and fly ash-stabilized slag and macadam material, tailored for China’s extensive coal production and consumption. They discovered that ultrasonic testing effectively assesses its strength and freeze–thaw durability [28]. Liu et al. conducted research on a cement-stabilized coral aggregate, a potentially sustainable foundational material for island roadways and airstrips. Acoustic emission technology was used to investigate its bending fracture characteristics, revealing the material’s brittleness and the dominance of tensile cracking [29]. Although conventional methods of destructive testing offer significant insights, their application is constrained due to their inherently destructive characteristics. These non-intrusive inspection techniques efficiently assess freeze–thaw deterioration in cement-solidified granular base materials exhibiting a suspended dense grading.
The objective of this research is to explore characteristics of freezing and thawing process-induced damage in cement-solidified granular road foundation materials exhibiting a dense grading with suspended particles. To fulfill this goal, a set of experimental trials will be undertaken to mimic freezing and thawing processes and assess mechanical characteristics of cement-solidified granular road foundation materials. The experimental focus will be on quantifying alterations in compressive strength as well as the resilience modulus under freezing and thawing environments. Moreover, ultrasonic inspection and acoustic emission techniques, which are non-intrusive testing methods, will be employed to evaluate internal defects as well as detect potential damage mechanisms. The innovativeness of this study lies in the comprehensive analysis of the freeze–thaw damage process, considering the unique properties of cement-stabilized crushed stone with a suspended dense gradation. The outcomes of this study will not only enhance our comprehension of damage mechanisms, but also facilitate more accurate life expectancy predictions for road structures based on damage characteristics, thereby paving the way for cost-effective maintenance strategies and the promotion of longer-lasting infrastructure.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Raw Materials

Cementitious material serves as a key component in enhancing the strength of broken stone road foundations stabilized by cement. For this investigation, we have selected P.O 42.5 standard Portland cement as a binder, and its performance attributes are detailed in Table 1, fulfilling required technical criteria (GB 175-2007 [30], BS EN 197-1: 2000 [31]) and showing similarity to the existing literature [21], indicating the accuracy and rationality of the test results.
Aggregate, a vital constituent of broken stone road foundations stabilized by cement, is classified as either coarse or fine depending on the particle dimensions. Conventionally, a particle dimension threshold of 4.75 mm is utilized to segregate coarse from fine aggregates. Coarse aggregate primarily comprises broken stone road foundations stabilized by cement, whereas fine aggregate and cement are blended to occupy voids and finalize the structure. In this investigation, basaltic rock is chosen as the aggregate material, and the performance characteristics of both coarse as well as fine aggregates are enumerated in Table 2 and Table 3 based on the standards (JTG E42-2005 [32], JTG/T F20-2015 [33], UNE-EN 1097-6 [34]), respectively.

2.2. Gradations and Specimen

For investigation, base materials incorporating suspended dense gradation were formulated. Illustrated in Figure 1 is the gradation curve pertaining to suspended dense gradation. A cement content of 5% was established, while a compaction degree of 98% was upheld. Through the process of static pressure molding, specimens were fabricated, subsequently enabling the determination of the peak dry density and ideal moisture content associated with suspended dense gradation. Regarding broken stone road foundations stabilized by cement that feature suspended dense gradation, the peak dry density achieved stands at 2.374 g/cm3, accompanied by an optimal moisture content of 4.9%.
Based on the Test Methods of Materials Stabilized with Inorganic Binders for Highway Engineering (JTG E 51-2009 [35]), a cylindrical specimen measuring 150 mm in diameter and 150 mm in height was fabricated through static pressure molding. Employing the peak dry density as well as the ideal moisture content specific to suspended dense gradation, samples were meticulously calculated as well as prepared. Specimens wrapped securely were then placed in a standard curing chamber maintained at a temperature of (20 ± 2) °C with a relative humidity exceeding 95%. After a curing period of 28 days, the specimens were submerged in water, ensuring that the water level remained 2.5 cm above their topmost surface on the final day of curing. Subsequently, a comprehensive suite of tests, including freezing and thawing processes, unconfined compressive strength evaluation, and acoustic detection, were conducted on the thoroughly cured specimens.

2.3. Experimental Methods

The flowchart depicted in Figure 2 illustrates the experimental procedure for investigating the performance degradation of the suspended dense broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement subjected to freezing and thawing processes. The experimental design encompasses four distinct groups, categorized based on freezing and thawing processes. Specifically, group Nos. 1 to 5 correspond to concrete specimens that have undergone 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 freezing and thawing processes, respectively.

2.3.1. Freeze–Thaw Cycle Test

The study utilizes an HBY-40B damp heat test chamber capable of alternating between high and low temperatures from the Shanghai Hengding Instrument and Equipment Factory (Shanghai, China) to conduct freezing and thawing tests, thereby regulating the temperature conditions. Following the specifications outlined in “Test Methods of Materials Stabilized with Inorganic Binders for Highway Engineering” (JTG E 51-2009 [35]) for frost resistance testing, the specimen is submerged in water following a curing period of 27 days. On the 28th day, it is taken out of the water and its surface moisture is dried. The freezing and thawing process experiment commences after the specimens are prepared, with the freezing and thawing process temperature set at −18 °C (freezing time: 16 h) and 20 °C (melting time: 8 h). A minimum gap of 20 mm is maintained between specimens to ensure effective freezing and thawing action. In determining freezing and thawing processes, reference is made to a previous study [36], indicating that in northeast seasonal frozen areas, the mean temperature during the coldest months ranges approximately from −8 °C to −20 °C, with an annual freeze–thaw cycle count averaging below 150 occurrences. To assess the effects of freezing and thawing processes on the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement, referring to the previous studies [21,37], this research employs five distinct freezing and thawing process levels: 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20. This process is repeated a pre-determined number of times based on test specifications. After a specific freezing and thawing process, the sample is removed from the freeze–thaw device, its mass is measured, and data are recorded. A visual examination is performed to detect any notable alterations in the specimens’ appearance or the emergence of cracks following a specific freezing and thawing process.

2.3.2. Compressive Strength and Resilience Modulus Test

The unconfined compressive mechanical test is executed in accordance with directives outlined in the Chinese standard (JTG E 51-2009 [35]). Prior to the test, the initial mass, dimensions, and elevation of each experimental specimen are meticulously gauged. Subsequently, the specimens are positioned within an electro-hydraulic servo universal testing apparatus that adheres to specifications of testing protocol. A YES-type compressive strength testing apparatus with a measurement range of 2000 kN and an accuracy of 1% (Zhongchuang Testing Machine, Jinan, China) is engaged, and the specimens are compressed at a rate of 1 mm/min until failure ensues. Ultimately, compressive strength data are recorded and evaluated to ascertain the compressive strength (R) of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement using Equation (1). This evaluation serves to appraise the compressive strength performance of the material.
R = P/A,
in which P represents the peak force attained during the specimen’s failure (N), whereas A denotes the specimen’s cross-sectional area (mm2).
The cylindrical specimen for experimentation measures 150 mm in both diameter and height. Prior to the commencement of the experiment, pretreatment is conducted on the specimen, with its upper and lower faces coated with cement paste possessing early- and high-strength properties. A thin layer of fine sand is evenly sprinkled atop. Subsequently, the specimen’s upper and lower surfaces are smoothed using rounded steel plates. The specimen is then allowed to rest for a duration of 8 h. Following this, it is soaked in water for a period of 24 h. The surface of the saturated sample is thoroughly dried, and a circular plate is utilized to enhance the contact area between the pressure plate and the specimen’s upper face. Dial indicators are positioned at both extremities of the loading plate, ensuring their contact with the plate and an approximately equal distance from specimen’s center. The sample undergoes a pre-pressing process twice, with each pre-press load amounting to half of the maximum load scheduled for application. Once the pre-pressing is completed, the dial indicator is reset to 0, and an initial reading is noted. The load to be applied is evenly divided into five sections. Following the application of each pre-determined load, the pressure is maintained for a minute, and the corresponding reading is recorded. Subsequently, the specimen is unloaded to its initial state, and an additional reading is taken. The resilience modulus (E) is calculated using the following formula:
E = ph/l,
in which the unit pressure is designated as p (MPa), while the height of the specimen is represented by h (mm). Additionally, l denotes the rebound deformation of the specimen, measured in mm.

2.3.3. Acoustic Detection Test

Ultrasonic examination, a prevalent non-intrusive inspection technique, relies on the influence of imperfections such as flaws, voids, and inhomogeneities within a material on the dissemination of ultrasonic waves. Consequently, unique acoustic signatures emerge, enabling the evaluation of the internal integrity as well as the structural condition of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Within the investigation, a non-metallic ultrasonic inspection device from Beijing ZBL Science and Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China) was utilized to assess variations in the internal ultrasonic propagation velocity of samples subjected to varying freezing and thawing processes. The sampling period was 0.05–409.6 μs, the acoustic time accuracy was 0.05 μs, the frequency band width was 10–250 kHz, and the receiving sensitivity was less than or equal to 30 μV.
The technique of acoustic emission (AE) serves as a highly sensitive passive monitoring method. It entails the capture and subsequent analysis of AE signals emitted during mechanical processes within materials. This approach facilitates the indirect detection of internal damage alterations, and Figure 3 plots the schematic of AE testing system and the corresponding AE parameters. For this research, AE signals were gathered during the compression failure process of specimens, subject to varying freezing and thawing processes, by an AE testing system from Qingcheng AE Institute Co., Ltd. (Guangzhou, China), to explore their specific compression failure damage traits.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Performance Deterioration Analysis of Suspended Dense Graded Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement Exposed to Freeze–Thaw Cycles

3.1.1. Mass Analysis

The morphology of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement, following exposure to various freezing and thawing processes, is depicted in Figure 4. Initially, in the absence of freeze–thaw conditions, the specimens maintain a smooth and undamaged appearance. After enduring five freezing and thawing processes, minimal alterations in morphology are observed, albeit with the emergence of some dense pores on surface. As freezing and thawing damage accumulates, the surface damage of broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement progressively intensifies. Upon enduring 10 to 15 freezing and thawing processes, notable peeling of the fine aggregates becomes evident on the specimen surface. After enduring 20 freezing and thawing processes, severe peeling of the cementing materials on the surface occurs, leading to the extensive exposure of coarse aggregates.
Figure 5 illustrates the relationship between the rate of mass loss in the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement and the freezing and thawing processes undergone. The study reveals that, as freezing and thawing processes increase from 0 to 20, the correlation curve between the mass loss rate and the cycles follows a gradual upward trend. At the point where freezing and thawing processes reach five, the mass loss rate approximates 0.38%. Subsequently, the rate of mass loss increases at a decelerated pace. Upon completion of 15 freezing and thawing processes, the mass loss rate rises to approximately 0.72%, and by the 20th cycle, it reaches around 0.96%. It is noteworthy that, after 15 freezing and thawing processes, the gradient of the mass loss rate curve undergoes a slight intensification. As the extent of freezing and thawing damage to the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement intensifies, the curve of the mass loss rate becomes steeper, signifying a more rapid change in the mass of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. The regression analysis of the relationship between the mass loss rate of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement and freezing and thawing processes during the cycling process suggests a parabolic fitting pattern.
The aforementioned results demonstrate that freezing and thawing processes exert a considerable influence on both the rate of mass loss and the visible structure of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. With the augmentation of freezing and thawing processes, the rate of mass loss in the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement progressively increases, and its observable structure becomes increasingly flawed. These structural flaws primarily consist of microcracks and detachment between the aggregates and cement paste. This is primarily attributed to the expansion of water content within the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement during freezing and its contraction during thawing, ultimately causing microcracks and detachment within the structure. These structural flaws can significantly compromise the mechanical properties and lifespan of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement [38,39]. Consequently, it is imperative to adopt measures aimed at reducing the water content in a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement or enhancing its resistance to freezing during both construction and usage to guarantee its longevity.

3.1.2. Compressive Strength Analysis

The plot in Figure 6 illustrates a characteristic relationship between the unconfined compressive strength of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement and the freezing and thawing processes it undergoes. Typically, as freezing and thawing processes accumulate, the compressive strength of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement with a dense gradation of suspended particles diminishes. Multiple factors, including water content, temperature variations, and the existence of freeze-sensitive materials, concurrently influence the compressive strength of this base material during freezing and thawing processes. Upon experiencing over 20 freezing and thawing processes, the compressive strength of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement decreased from 7.71 MPa to approximately 5.99 MPa. Nevertheless, this decrement does not occur linearly; rather, the rate of compressive strength decline may intensify with an increase in freezing and thawing processes. The analysis of the compressive strength ratio further validates that the compressive strength of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement gradually wanes with the rising count of freezing and thawing processes. When subjected to five freezing and thawing processes, the compressive strength ratio approximates 99.5%. However, as the freezing and thawing processes escalate, the rate of decline in the compressive strength ratio accelerates. At ten freezing and thawing processes, the ratio diminishes to approximately 97.9%. Furthermore, at 15 and 20 cycles, the compressive strength ratios decrease significantly to around 93.4% and 77.7%, respectively. The analysis of the relationship between the compressive strength ratio and freezing and thawing process suggests a parabolic fitting trend, analogous to the pattern observed in mass loss rate. As the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement sustains increasing freezing and thawing damage, the slope of the compressive strength ratio curve steepens, signifying a more rapid deterioration in its strength. The examination of unconfined compressive strength reveals that freezing and thawing processes significantly impair the compressive strength of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. With an increase in freezing and thawing processes, the compressive strength gradually wanes. Initially, the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement exhibits minimal damage and possesses a denser pore structure. This is attributed to the expansion of water content during freezing and subsequent contraction during thawing, which gives rise to microcracks and debonding within the structure. These minor damages can ultimately lead to structural flaws, considerably compromising the mechanical properties and longevity of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement [40,41].

3.1.3. Resilience Modulus Analysis

The modulus of compressive resilience serves as a crucial index in the design of semi-rigid base materials. The characteristic relationship between the resilience modulus of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement exposed to freezing and thawing processes is depicted in Figure 7. Typically, as freezing and thawing processes accumulate, the resilience modulus of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement diminishes. Throughout the freezing and thawing processes, various factors such as water content, temperature, and the presence of freezing-sensitive components influence the compressive strength of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. The water trapped within this material expands upon freezing and contracts during thawing. This repetitive expansion and contraction can trigger microcracking and debonding within the material, ultimately decreasing its compressive resilience modulus. After enduring over 20 freezing and thawing processes, the resilience modulus of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement decreased significantly, dropping from 1878.50 MPa to approximately 1267.34 MPa. Nevertheless, this decline does not follow a linear pattern; instead, the rate of decrease in the compressive resilience modulus may intensify as freezing and thawing processes multiply.
The results of the compressive resilience modulus loss rates reveal a gradual decline in the resilience modulus of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement as freezing and thawing processes accumulate. At five freezing and thawing processes, the resilience modulus loss rate approximates 3.21%. However, as freezing and thawing processes proliferate, the rate of resilience modulus loss intensifies at a faster pace. Notably, when freezing and thawing processes reach 10, the resilience modulus loss rate surges to approximately 15.35%. Furthermore, at 15 and 20 freezing and thawing processes, the resilience modulus loss rates ascend to approximately 20.9% and 32.53%, respectively. The correlation between the resilience modulus loss rate and freezing and thawing processes, upon fitting, exhibits a parabolic trend, mirroring the pattern observed in the mass loss rate. As the extent of freezing and thawing damage to the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement intensifies, the resilience modulus loss rate curve exhibits a steeper gradient, signifying a more rapid alteration in the resilience modulus.
The outcome for the compressive resilience modulus demonstrates a notable influence of freezing and thawing processes on resilience properties in the cement-stabilized crushed stone base. With an escalation in freezing and thawing processes, the compressive resilience modulus of this material experiences a gradual decline. Initially, the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement exhibits minimal damage as well as possesses a compact internal pore structure [40]. However, its ability to endure repeated cycles of expansion and contraction is limited. As freezing and thawing processes accumulate, the damage intensifies, leading to a steady reduction in the compressive resilience modulus. It is crucial to emphasize that a decrement in the compressive resilience modulus can significantly affect the mechanical characteristics and longevity of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Consequently, it is imperative to factor in the impact of freezing and thawing processes during the design of infrastructure projects that incorporate its usage.

3.2. Freeze–Thaw Damage Assessment of Suspended Dense Graded Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement by Acoustic Parameters

3.2.1. Ultrasonic Wave Velocity Analysis

Ultrasonic waves serve as a highly effective non-destructive testing technique, enabling the examination of the internal conditions within a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Illustrated in Figure 8 is the correlation between the ultrasonic pulse velocity loss rate of concrete as well as the freezing and thawing processes undergone. During these freezing and thawing processes, the velocity of ultrasonic waves propagating through the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement undergoes variations depending on the frequency of these cycles. Typically, an increase in freezing and thawing processes results in a corresponding decrease in ultrasonic wave velocity within a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. This observed trend can be rationalized by principles governing the propagation of ultrasonic waves within such materials. Ultrasonic waves traverse through a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement via the interplay between elastic stress and density fields. As these waves propagate within the material, they induce a compressive stress field, thereby shaping the distribution of the density field. The velocity at which these ultrasonic waves propagate is dictated by the elastic modulus and the density characteristics of the base material. During freezing and thawing processes, the repetitive cycles of freezing and thawing give rise to microcracks and imperfections within the structure of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Consequently, these microstructural changes result in a reduction in both elastic modulus and density, ultimately causing a deceleration in velocity of ultrasonic waves.
The findings reveal a gradual decline in ultrasonic wave velocity for the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement as freezing and thawing processes accumulate. Specifically, upon reaching five freezing and thawing processes, the ultrasonic wave velocity loss rate reaches approximately 2.81%. Notably, as freezing and thawing processes intensify, the rate of loss for ultrasonic wave velocity accelerates. Markedly, at ten freezing and thawing processes, the velocity loss rate surges to nearly 5.07%, escalating further to approximately 10.1% and 20.47% at 15 and 20 cycles, respectively. These observations underscore the profound impact of freezing and thawing processes on the ultrasonic wave velocity characteristics of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Regarding the analysis of the ultrasonic wave velocity loss rate through polynomial fitting, a quadratic polynomial equation effectively captures the trend. As freezing and thawing processes accumulate, the loss rate exhibits a parabolic pattern. This behavior is likely attributed to progressive accumulation of microcracks and defects within the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement, ultimately leading to a precipitous decline in the ultrasonic wave velocity loss rate beyond a certain threshold of freezing and thawing processes [38]. In conclusion, this discovery offers profound insights into the monitoring and prediction of the mechanical properties and durability of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement structures under freezing and thawing processes, thus enhancing our understanding of their performance in such environments.

3.2.2. Acoustic Emission Parameter Analysis

Figure 9 depicts the relationship between AE parameters and stress levels across varying freezing–thawing cycles. According to Figure 9, the entire process of failure and cracking in the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement, under compressive loading, can be categorized into three distinct stages [38]. Stage I: Initial Damage Phase—In this initial phase, the low-level stress undergoes minimal alterations, and no fresh cracks emerge. The damage remains in the early stages of minor loss. The AE cumulative energy exhibits a linear correlation with the stress level in the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Stage II: Stable Damage Phase—Within this stage, internal cracks within the cement-stabilized macadam specimens proliferate, and a limited number of micro-cracks become visible on the surface. The accumulation of energy starts to accelerate, and the rate of increase gradually intensifies. While the AE count begins to rise, it remains relatively consistent overall. The AE cumulative energy–stress level curve of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement base exhibits a pronounced nonlinear behavior. Stage III: Ultimate Failure Phase—In the final stages of damage, the specimen’s performance deteriorates significantly, exhibiting a sudden and brittle failure mode. The AE count surges, and the AE cumulative energy–stress level curve of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement experiences a steep climb.
Based on the correlation between AE parameters and stress levels across varying freezing and thawing processes, it is evident that Stage I’s duration elongates three-fold as the freezing and thawing process count rises to 20 cycles. This elongation stems from the freezing and thawing processes’ deleterious effects on the cement-stabilized base’s internal microstructure, resulting in the emergence of additional internal imperfections. Consequently, a comparatively higher stress level is necessary to initiate macro-cracks in the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement subjected to freezing and thawing processes. Notably, Figure 9 reveals an intriguing aspect: Stage III’s duration diminishes to around one fifth as the freezing and thawing process count intensifies to 20 cycles. This reduction can be explained by the accelerated enlargement of internal defects and cracks under freezing and thawing action. These observations can be harnessed to evaluate the damage status and performance decline of a broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement during freezing and thawing process action.

4. Conclusions

Comprehensive experimental research on damage behavior caused by freezing and thawing cycles of a suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement has been carried out in this study. Mechanical tests, mass loss measurements, and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests were conducted to assess freezing and thawing process damage characteristics of the cement-stabilized base. Subsequently, AE technology was utilized to evaluate the damage development status of the cement-stabilized base. The research has yielded profound understandings of the mechanisms and procedures underlying freezing and thawing process-induced damage in a suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement. Here are the primary discoveries from the study:
(1)
The mechanical properties of the cement-stabilized base are significantly affected by freezing and thawing processes. The compressive strength and modulus of elasticity decrease with an increase in freezing and thawing processes. The mechanical properties follow the parabola fitting pattern relationships with freezing and thawing processes, with an R2 above 0.95.
(2)
The mass loss of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement increases with an increase in freezing and thawing processes. A decrease in the velocity of ultrasonic waves after exposure to freezing and thawing processes is observed. This indicates the presence of damage and deterioration in the material’s structure.
(3)
AE technology is effective in monitoring the development of damage in a suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement, including initial, stationary, and failure stages. The duration of the initial stage increases three-fold, indicating that it takes a larger stress level to initiate macro-cracks. The duration of the failure stage decreases to around one fifth, indicating that internal defects and cracks expand rapidly under freezing and thawing process action.
The outcomes obtained from this study offer profound understanding regarding the mechanisms and procedures involved in freezing and thawing process-induced deterioration of a cement-stabilized crushed stone base featuring suspended dense gradation. The application of XRF analysis for the product holds immense potential in further enhancing our comprehension of its composition and properties. This analysis can provide valuable insights into the chemical makeup of the stabilized base, enabling us to optimize its performance and durability for practical applications in civil engineering and infrastructure development.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.D., K.H. and F.W.; methodology, H.D., K.H. and F.W.; validation, H.D., K.H. and F.W.; formal analysis, H.D., K.H., F.W. and Y.W.; investigation, H.D., K.H., F.W. and Y.W.; writing—original draft preparation, H.D., K.H. and Y.W.; writing—review and editing, F.W.; project administration, F.W.; funding acquisition, F.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Scientific Research Project of the Department of Education of Jilin Province (grant number: JJKH20241300KJ).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Haihong Deng was employed by the company Southern Engineering Consulting Supervision Co., Ltd. of China Railway First Survey and Design Institute. Author Kainan Huang was employed by the company Guangxi Transportation Science and Technology Group Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

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Figure 1. The suspended dense gradation for base materials.
Figure 1. The suspended dense gradation for base materials.
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Figure 2. The experimental procedure flow in this study.
Figure 2. The experimental procedure flow in this study.
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Figure 3. The schematic of the AE testing system and the corresponding AE parameters.
Figure 3. The schematic of the AE testing system and the corresponding AE parameters.
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Figure 4. The apparent morphology of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
Figure 4. The apparent morphology of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
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Figure 5. The mass variation for the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
Figure 5. The mass variation for the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
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Figure 6. The unconfined compressive strength variation of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
Figure 6. The unconfined compressive strength variation of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
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Figure 7. The resilience modulus variation of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
Figure 7. The resilience modulus variation of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
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Figure 8. The ultrasonic wave velocity variation of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
Figure 8. The ultrasonic wave velocity variation of the suspended dense graded broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement under different freeze–thaw cycles.
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Figure 9. The relationship of AE count and cumulative energy parameters of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement with stress level under freeze–thaw cycles: (a) 0 freeze–thaw cycles; (b) 5 freeze–thaw cycles; (c) 10 freeze–thaw cycles; (d) 15 freeze–thaw cycles; and (e) 20 freeze–thaw cycles.
Figure 9. The relationship of AE count and cumulative energy parameters of the broken stone road foundation stabilized by cement with stress level under freeze–thaw cycles: (a) 0 freeze–thaw cycles; (b) 5 freeze–thaw cycles; (c) 10 freeze–thaw cycles; (d) 15 freeze–thaw cycles; and (e) 20 freeze–thaw cycles.
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Table 1. Performance indexes of cement.
Table 1. Performance indexes of cement.
Performance IndexesResultsStandard
Initial setting time (h)2≥0.75
Final setting time (h)3≤10
3 d compressive strength (MPa)25≥21
28 d compressive strength (MPa)53≥42.5
3 d flexural strength (MPa)5.2≥4.0
28 d flexural strength (MPa)8.5≥6.5
Table 2. Coarse aggregate indexes.
Table 2. Coarse aggregate indexes.
IndexesValuesStandard
Apparent relative density2.766/(T0308)
Water absorption (%)1.24/(T0307)
Needle-like content (%)10.6≤18 (T0312)
Crushing value (%)21.5≤22 (T0316)
Table 3. Fine aggregate indexes.
Table 3. Fine aggregate indexes.
IndexesValuesStandard
Apparent relative density2.682/(T0328)
Water absorption (%)1.72/(T0330)
Plasticity index10.6≤17 (T0118)
Liquid limit (%)23.2/(T0118)
Plastic limit (%)12.6/(T0118)
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MDPI and ACS Style

Deng, H.; Huang, K.; Wu, F.; Wang, Y. Performance Evaluation and Degradation Analysis of Suspended Dense Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement under Conditions of Freezing and Thawing. Buildings 2024, 14, 1828. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061828

AMA Style

Deng H, Huang K, Wu F, Wang Y. Performance Evaluation and Degradation Analysis of Suspended Dense Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement under Conditions of Freezing and Thawing. Buildings. 2024; 14(6):1828. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061828

Chicago/Turabian Style

Deng, Haihong, Kainan Huang, Fei Wu, and Yinghan Wang. 2024. "Performance Evaluation and Degradation Analysis of Suspended Dense Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement under Conditions of Freezing and Thawing" Buildings 14, no. 6: 1828. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061828

APA Style

Deng, H., Huang, K., Wu, F., & Wang, Y. (2024). Performance Evaluation and Degradation Analysis of Suspended Dense Broken Stone Road Foundation Stabilized by Cement under Conditions of Freezing and Thawing. Buildings, 14(6), 1828. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061828

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