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The Costs of Living Side-by-Side with Monkeys: Economic Impacts on Commercial Farms and Property by Toque Macaques and Proposed Deterrent Strategies in a Rural Agriculture Area of Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka
1
Department of Anthropology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
2
International Center for Multidisciplinary Studies, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
3
Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Animals 2025, 15(3), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15030366
Submission received: 23 December 2024
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Revised: 17 January 2025
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Accepted: 24 January 2025
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Published: 27 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Human-Animal Interactions, Animal Behaviour and Emotion)
Simple Summary
An integrated management plan is recommended to address these conflicts effectively. In Sri Lanka, conflicts between humans and primates, particularly macaques, have increased due to habitat loss and human population growth. A study conducted with an interviewer-administered questionnaire and field observations in the Kurunegala District revealed significant economic losses to farmers from crop and property damage caused by macaques. Monthly losses ranged from 2300 LKR to 14,000 LKR, depending on the crop and season, with additional costs of 1200 LKR to 3000 LKR per household for deterrent methods like firecrackers and air rifles.
Abstract
As the human population has grown and expanded, increasing pressure is being put on natural habitats in Sri Lanka. This situation has led to a noticeable increase in human–primate conflicts. To understand the situation, we studied the interactions between humans and macaques in three administrative divisions of the Kurunegala District. Data was gathered from 875 informants through interviewer-administered questionnaires between 2020 and 2022. The monthly economic loss by commercial farmers due to macaque damage to fruits and vegetables doubled by 2022, amounting to approximately 5000 LKR. In non-fruiting seasons, losses from coconut damage increased, ranging from 3000 to 14,000 LKR/month, decreasing by over 50% during fruiting seasons. Property damage per household averaged between 850~4000 LKR/month. A cost of approximately 1200~3000 LKR was borne per household/month to deter monkeys from the fields. Macaques were the primary culprits for crop damage in this area, and were also responsible for property damage, surpassing that of other animals. The consensus among the community is that either relocating macaques to other forested areas or sterilizing them to control their population could mitigate the issue to some extent. An integrated management plan involving relevant stakeholders including the Forest Department, the Wildlife Conservation Department, the local agricultural agency, and local citizens is necessary to address the conflict arising from human–macaque crop utilization.
