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Article

Impact of Super Typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ on Density of Kelp Forest and Associated Benthic Communities in Jeju Island, Republic of Korea

by
Kyeong-Tae Lee
1,
Garance Perrois
1,
Hyun-Sung Yang
1,
Taeho Kim
2,
Sun Kyeong Choi
1,
Do-Hyung Kang
1,2,3 and
Taihun Kim
1,*
1
Tropical & Subtropical Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Jeju 63349, Republic of Korea
2
Jeju Bio Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Jeju 63349, Republic of Korea
3
Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Busan 49111, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(5), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11051035
Submission received: 10 April 2023 / Revised: 9 May 2023 / Accepted: 10 May 2023 / Published: 12 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Physiology of Seaweeds and Their Response to Changes)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study was carried out to determine the levels of resistance and resilience of kelp forests to large-scale physical disturbances. Our study site, Seongsan, Jeju Island, was impacted by super typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’. Before the typhoon, Seongsan had shown high ecosystem stability. Our results indicated that the ecological stability of a kelp forest facing a severe typhoon is strongly linked to the prevailing environmental conditions. Although typhoon impact resulted in a significant loss of brown macroalgae canopy, Ecklonia cava remained dominant within the kelp forest community. Resistance and resilience levels strongly depended on water temperature and movement and presence of turf-forming algae. Hence, hydrodynamic and biological factors strongly influence the overall stability of a kelp forest. We also report the first occurrences of a scleractinian coral species (i.e., Montipora millepora) at Seongsan, which became visible after canopy loss following the typhoon. Our findings provide valuable ecological information about the benthic community of kelp-dominated ecosystems and are essential to mitigate the impacts of expected climate change-driven rises in seawater temperature and the frequency of super typhoons.

1. Introduction

Kelp forests are marine, shallow-water environments, densely inhabited by anchored, submerged brown macroalgae species that retain and produce nutrients, providing a nutrient-rich habitat. They are also responsible for facilitating nutrient cycling, reducing water flow, providing coastal defense, and sequestering significant amounts of blue carbon, all contributing to the overall health and functioning of nearshore marine ecosystems [1,2]. Kelps are ecologically important primary producers and marine ecosystem engineers through the structuring of biogenic nearshore habitats that provide resources and shelter for numerous benthic organisms [2,3]. In addition, many commercially and ecologically valuable marine species rely on kelp forests as nursery grounds, feeding areas, as well as refugia from predators [4,5,6,7,8,9]. Hence, kelp forests provide essential ecosystem services, highlighting the importance of enhancing their appreciation and management to ensure their survival and sustainability [10]. Therefore, in-depth studies on resistance and resilience of such underwater forests are indispensable.
Ecklonia cava Kjellman 1885 is a representative canopy-forming brown algal species that forms kelp forests in the shallow, subtidal hard bottoms of the eastern and southern coastal areas of the Korean peninsula, including Jeju Island [9,11]. E. cava is presently the only species of the genus Ecklonia Hornemann 1828 occurring in Korean waters [12]. The species is an economically important local resource, widely utilized as raw material for producing functional foods, dietary supplements, and feed for aquaculture [13,14,15,16]. Regarding its critical ecological roles as a forest-forming kelp species, E. cava is a protected species in Korea, and harvesting is prohibited all year around to ensure its survival and conservation [9]. Thus, for commercial purposes, E. cava can only be collected when dislodged after natural disturbance or thallus detachment [17].
Recently, the decline of Jeju Island’s E. cava population has been making headlines due to its essential role in the regional marine ecosystem and significant contribution to the local economy [18]. Until the end of the 1980s, the coastal area of Jeju Island was predominated by a dense E. cava population, which has rapidly been decreasing over the last two to three decades [19,20]. This decrease in E. cava abundance is caused by a combination of factors, mainly rising seawater temperature, nutrient over-enrichment, and competitive interactions with newly introduced benthic species [21,22,23].
Further environmental parameters that significantly modify the structure and function of benthic communities include episodical, large-scale disturbances, such as typhoons, storms, tsunamis, and hurricanes [24]. Although investigations on the effects of such natural calamities on seaweed distribution and diversity are rare, it is known that the timing, frequency, and intensity of these disturbances influence the stability of the affected ecosystems [25,26,27,28]. The stability of ecosystems affected by disturbances can be assessed by their resistance and resilience, where resilience is defined as ‘returning to the reference state after a temporary disturbance’ and resistance as ‘staying essentially unchanged despite the presence of disturbances’ [29]. Large typhoons severely impact marine ecosystems; for instance, macroalgal communities in California have been shown to take several months to more than a decade to regain their original state of stability [30]. Around Jeju Island, Kim et al. [31] reported a recovery time of 34 months for a typhoon-damaged E. cava population. Currently, some studies focus on the decline of E. cava populations due to climate change. However, studies have yet to examine the ecological association of E. cava and benthic communities before and after typhoons.
From 2001 to 2023, 73 typhoons have reached the Korean Peninsula, 53 of them having a direct impact (Korean Meteorological Administration; https://data.kma.go.kr/, accessed on 24 April 2023). In September 2022, super typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ made landfall on Jeju Island, presenting a rare opportunity to examine the effects of a severe typhoon on benthic community composition and E. cava population (Figure 1). We determined changes in benthic composition, canopy density, and E. cava population dynamics as a direct result of the typhoon. The findings of this study provide a scientific backdrop for establishing effective management and preservation strategies for Jeju’s vulnerable kelp populations.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

Jeju Island is a volcanic island located approximately 100 km off the southwestern coast of the Korean peninsula. The study was conducted at Seongsan in the east of Jeju Island (Figure 2). The Seongsan coastline is characterized by a rocky shore composed of basaltic bedrock, boulders, and sandy patches. Seongsan marine environment is heavily influenced by the Tsushima warm current and strong tidal currents [32]. Moreover, it exhibits significant seasonality, with seawater temperature fluctuating between 12.8 ± 0.9 °C in winter and 23.4 ± 1.5 °C in summer over the last decade (average of seawater temperature from January to March and from July to September, respectively, from 2013 to 2022; Korea Hydrographic and Oceanographic Agency; http://www.khoa.go.kr, accessed on 31 March 2023).
Jeju Island is located in the storm-prone northwestern Pacific within direct trajectory of typhoons [31,33]. On 5 September 2022, typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’, the 11th typhoon of the year to hit Korea, passed 430 km southwestward of Seogwipo, south of Jeju Island, and continued moving northward through the center of the Korean Strait, eventually making landfall at Geoje on the Korean mainland. At its peak on 4 September 2022, the typhoon was classified as a super typhoon with a central atmospheric pressure of 945 hectopascals and maximum sustained winds of 157 km/h. The waves reached heights of more than 10 m, whereas they are normally roughly 2 m high (Korean Meteorological Administration; https://data.kma.go.kr/, accessed on 22 March 2023).

2.2. Underwater Image Analysis

We installed 100-m permanent line transects at 10 m (33°27′10.1″ N, 126°56′28.6″ E) and 15 m (33°27′08.6″ N, 126°56′28.7″ E) depths at the coastal area of Seongsan Ilchulbong. Surveys were carried out in May before the typhoon, in September, right after the typhoon, and in November 2022, three months after the typhoon. Along each line transect, ten photographs (1 m2) were taken at 10 m intervals (Figure 3) with an underwater camera (Sony ILCE-7RM3A with underwater housing; a maximum resolution of 7952 × 5304 pixels). Photos were taken at the same positions before (May 2022) and after the typhoon (27 September and 24 November 2022). The camera housing was equipped with a stable tetrapod stand to hold the camera at a fixed distance from the rocky subtidal substrate to ensure comparable vertical-plate photographs.
Quantification and identification of benthic communities were conducted using the photoQuad® software (version 1.4), which operates in a layer-based environment following multiple analyses performed on the same source photograph [34]. The percentage cover of each benthic taxonomic group was analyzed using the random point counts method of the image analysis software. One hundred allocated points were randomly distributed on each 1 m2 photo-quadrat. The underlying benthic species were identified by assigning points according to visual information such as color, texture, and shape. In cases where the assigned points were unclear (e.g., shadowy or blurry) or corresponded to fish, transect, sand, or rock, they were excluded from the analysis.
Although the photo-quadrat method is widely applied to evaluate benthic coverage, its application is limited in determining whole benthic communities in canopy-forming algae ecosystems due to dense vegetation. Additionally, differentiating between the developmental and/or morphological stages of the dominant algae species is near impossible due to the lush canopy of the adult stages hiding smaller, earlier, or degrading stages. However, after the typhoon much of the canopy was destroyed, leaving the substrate and initially hidden benthos, as well as different morphological stages of predominant E. cava visible in the photos. Hence, in our September and November post-typhoon surveys, recruits, adults, and holdfasts of E. cava were identified from the photo-quadrats, with recruits and adults presenting developmental stages, and holdfasts presenting a degradation stage (Figure 3b). The abundance of each morphological stage (recruit, adult, holdfast) of E. cava was analyzed using the species markers option of the photoQuad® software.

2.3. Identification and Categorization of Benthic Community

All benthic organisms were identified to the genus level, except geniculate coralline algae, non-geniculate coralline algae, and filamentous turf. The identification of benthic organisms was primarily determined using the following literature: Lee et al. [23], Yoshida [35], Lee [36], Sugihara et al. [37], Connell et al. [38], and McCoy and Kamenos [39]. In post-typhoon surveys, Ecklonia cava was further categorized into two developmental and one degradation stage following their morphological form: (1) recruits without blades (linear shape), (2) adults with large and complex blades, and (3) holdfasts with only the holdfast and the stipe remaining. All benthic organisms were assigned to five larger categories (see Table 1): (1) kelps (canopy-forming brown algae species E. cava and Sargassum spp.), (2) turf-forming algae (geniculate coralline algae and filamentous turf; following Connell et al. [38]), (3) non-geniculate coralline algae (rhodolith and crustose coralline algae; following McCoy and Kamenos [39]), (4) other macroalgae, such as chlorophytes, phaeophytes, and rhodophytes excluding canopy-forming brown algae, turf-forming algae, and non-geniculate coralline algae, and (5) other sessile invertebrates (e.g., scleractinian hard corals, sponges, anemones, and ascidians).

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The percentage cover of benthic organisms was square-root transformed and standardized. Variation in the percentage cover of the benthic taxa was compared among month, depth, and before/after typhoon by analysis of similarity (ANOSIM). The contribution of benthic taxa to the difference or similarity in benthic community assemblages among or within months and before/after typhoon was examined using similarity percentages (SIMPER). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to investigate the variability in the benthic community composition according to months. To test the difference in density (individuals/m2) of the different morphological forms of E. cava between depths and months, a two-way crossed analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out. Normality and heterogeneity of the variance were tested using Shapiro and Levene tests, respectively. All statistical analyses were conducted using the software PRIMER version 7 (PRIMER-e Ltd., Auckland, New Zealand) and R version 4.2.3.

3. Results

3.1. Benthic Community Composition

Twenty-one benthic taxa were identified (Table 1). Overall, the mean percentage cover of canopy-forming brown algae (E. cava, Sargassum spp.) decreased rapidly at 10 m and 15 m depth after the typhoon (Figure 4). Before the typhoon, canopy-forming brown algae percentage cover accounted for 90.1% at 10 m depth, and 70.6% at 15 m depth. The percentage cover of canopy-forming brown algae was consistently higher at 10 m depth than at 15 m depth, except for the value from November. In contrast, the percentage cover of turf-forming algae and other macroalgae taxa was generally lower at 10 m depth than at 15 m depth. The percentage cover of non-geniculate coralline algae was generally higher at 15 m depth than at 10 m depth, before and after the typhoon except in November. The percentage cover of other sessile organisms before the typhoon was extremely low due to the dense canopy blocking everything growing underneath from sight.
The ANOSIM analysis identified significant differences in the benthic composition between months (R = 0.475, p = 0.001) and before/after typhoon (R = 0.755, p = 0.001), but not between 10 m and 15 m depth (R = 0.018, p = 0.159; Table S1). According to the pairwise tests, there were significant differences between each month, but a lower significant difference (R = 0.173, p = 0.001) between September and November. The principal component analysis (PCA) showed a clear separation between the periods before and after the typhoon in benthic community composition, with PC1 and PC2 explaining 71.0% of the total variation (Figure 5a). According to the SIMPER analysis of similarities within months, the pre-typhoon group (May) is characterized by E. cava and geniculate coralline algae, while post-typhoon groups (September and November) are mainly determined by E. cava, non-geniculate coralline algae, and geniculate coralline algae (Figure 5b). Table S2 shows the dissimilarity in the benthic taxa between pre- and post-typhoon groups, as determined by the SIMPER analysis. The groups contributing the most to the dissimilarity are as follows (in decreasing order of significance): non-geniculate coralline algae (16.07%), E. cava (15.08%), geniculate coralline algae (13.43%), Sargassum spp. (12.10%), Plocamium sp. (9.01%), Peyssonnelia sp. (7.08%), Filamentous turf (7.00%), Grateloupia sp. (6.62%), Cladophora sp. (4.50%), and Hildenbrandia sp. (4.06%). These taxonomic groups contribute up to 94% to the total dissimilarity observed between groups before and after the typhoon.

3.2. Ecklonia cava Population Dynamics after Typhoon

The percentage cover of E. cava was 78.2% and 53.7% at 10 m and 15 m depth, respectively, in May (Table 1). After the typhoon, the average percentage cover of E. cava was 30.6% at 10 m depth and 23.4% at 15 m depth. Figure 6 shows the density (ind./m2) of each developmental stage (recruit, adult) and holdfast of E. cava based on post-typhoon underwater image analysis. The density of E. cava holdfasts was significantly different between months and depths (Table S3): 4.8 ind./m2 and 2.1 ind./m2 in September and November, respectively, at 15 m depth, and 7.0 ind./m2 and 3.9 ind./m2 in September and November, respectively, at 10 m depth. In contrast, the density of E. cava recruits and adults was not significantly different (Table S3) between November and September at each depth.

4. Discussion

The east coast of Jeju Island, particularly the subtidal zone of Seongsan, is known for its high abundance of canopy-forming brown algae assemblages composed of E. cava and Sargassum spp. [40,41]. According to Table S4, this study found that the percentage cover of E. cava is now even higher than that of a previous study examining the same site [23]. This indicates that E. cava is yet to reach peak density. Furthermore, Lee et al. [23] documented that in 2014, canopy-forming brown algae (E. cava, Sargassum spp.), turf-forming algae (geniculate coralline algae species), Plocamium sp., Grateloupia sp., Peyssonnelia sp., and non-geniculate coralline algae species were the main components of the benthic community at Seongsan, along the east coast of Jeju Island, which mirrors the results from our study (Figure 4 and Figure 5). Such near-decadal stability of the benthic community structure indicates that the marine environment at Seongsan either experienced negligible physical disturbance, is less susceptible to environmental variability, or holds the potential for fast recovery. In the subtidal zone of Jeju Island, canopy-forming brown algae support elevated levels of biodiversity and abundance of benthic organisms [22]. Therefore, Seongsan’s nearshore ecosystem has shown high resistance, as its benthic community and biodiversity have maintained their ecological functions for at least eight years before super typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’.
To determine the level of resilience of Seongsan’s kelp forest, we looked at the density of developmental and degradation stages of E. cava after typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’. Our study found a dramatic decrease of 41.4% in percentage cover of E. cava after the typhoon at 10 m and 15 m depth (Table 1). Despite this significant decline in E. cava population, E. cava remained the dominant species after the typhoon (Figure 5). This indicates that large-scale disturbances, such as severe weather phenomena, may not cause an override of either the biological or the equilibrium mechanisms driving dominant community-structuring processes. This can be explained by an older kelp forest study from California, which found that a certain patch structure persists after large-scale disturbances [42]. Additionally, Kang et al. [19] found that the distribution of dominant macroalgae differs depending on the velocity of the water. Especially E. cava, with its finger-like holdfasts and large thalli, can effectively defend itself against water movement and wave action [19,43]. Seongsan is notorious for its strong bottom-water currents and generally fast and complex water movements, which benefit the dominant position of E. cava within algal assemblages.
Our results showed no statistically significant difference in abundance of recruit and adult stages between September and November after the typhoon (Table S3). Consistent high density of recruits during this period implies that recruitment was already ongoing under the canopy before the typhoon and has since remained continuous. This also implies that recruits were protected from typhoon damage by the dense canopy of adults. In contrast, a significant decrease in the holdfast stage during the same period was observed (Table S3). Right after the typhoon, many adult stages were damaged and degraded to holdfast stages. Three months after the typhoon, these holdfast stages have further degraded, with many of them having washed away entirely. Therefore, Seongsan’s E. cava population has experienced distinct fluctuations under the influence of the typhoon but maintained a stable population until November without additional damage, except for the already degraded holdfast stages, which died off.
A previous study from a site near Munseom in Seogwipo on the southern coast of Jeju Island has reported that no fully developed adults were observed even a year after a typhoon disturbance [31]. In our study on the east coast of Jeju, however, we observed various sizes of E. cava from recruitment to fully-developed adult stages three months after the typhoon, indicating potential contribution to additional recruitment through the release of spores. Therefore, although severe and wide-spread typhoon-caused dislodging of E. cava was observed, the reduction of substrate-shading canopy enhanced recruitment by means of increased light penetration and substrate space [44,45].
The growth of kelp species requires optimal environmental conditions, such as low seawater temperature, high water movement, strong light intensity, and high nutrient availability [46,47]. Some studies have reported that rising seawater temperature affecting Jeju Island has led to a continuous decline in E. cava population [20,21,23]. Seawater temperatures exceeding 20 °C, in particular, can cause physiological damage, leading to a reduction of growth and photosynthesis performance of kelp species, which may also cause latitudinal shifts in their distribution [48,49]. Kim et al. [31] reported that for optimal growth of E. cava, water temperatures between 15 and 18 °C are required, and a significant decrease in growth was observed when seawater temperatures exceeded 20 °C. The average seawater temperature over the last decade at Seongsan (east area of Jeju Island) was 17.8 ± 4.2 °C, compared to the considerably higher average at Seogwipo (south area of Jeju Island) at 19.8 ± 3.5 °C. This lower seawater temperature around Seongsan benefits the resistance and resilience levels of the local kelp forest.
Additionally, turf-forming algae, which are algae characterized by a cohesive, mat-like structure, distinguishing them from individuals occurring in loose configurations [38,50,51], facilitate the recruitment of kelp species by providing suitable microenvironments and a refuge from grazing for the early, microscopic stage of kelp [38,52,53]. Previous studies have reported a high percentage cover of geniculate coralline algae in intertidal and subtidal zones along the coastal area of Jeju Island [22,23]. In the present study, the percentage cover of turf-forming algae (geniculate coralline algae and filamentous turf) was high, as was detectable after post-typhoon canopy loss (Figure 4). Due to the high density of canopy-forming algae, the percentage cover of shorter, second-story, turf-forming algae was not sufficiently detectable, and radically underestimated by the photo-quadrat method. Regardless of this underestimation, the high coverage of geniculate coralline algae recorded after the typhoon supports a high level of resistance and resilience of Seongsan’s E. cava population.
Interestingly, after typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ had torn through our study site, the presence of the scleractinian coral species, Montipora millepora, was revealed (Figure 1d). Kim et al. [54] reported that M. millepora has successfully colonized the southern area of Jeju Island, but its presence in the eastern part was not yet known. This discovery confirms that this coral species is expanding its range from the southern to the eastern regions of Jeju Island. Furthermore, the climate change-driven loss of kelp forests has led to an increase in scleractinian corals, facilitating their expansion in high-latitude benthic ecosystems [23,55,56]. Thus, although currently, M. millepora is present at a low percentage cover (0.2%), it is expected that in light of a climate change-driven enhanced frequency of super typhoons and rising seawater temperature, the species will expand widely and eventually take over kelp forests in the eastern area of Jeju Island.

5. Conclusions

This study investigated the impact of a super typhoon on the changes in coverage of kelp forest species, E. cava, and related benthic communities at Seongsan, Jeju Island. The results showed that the percentage cover of E. cava, the primary component of kelp forests at our study site, declined significantly after the typhoon, while remaining dominant in the benthic community. This indicated that severe weather phenomena may not cause an override of either biological or equilibria mechanisms driving dominant community-structuring processes. Rather, the dominant stance of E. cava is likely caused by the strong and complex water movement at the site and the species’ superior ability to withstand such strong currents due to its finger-like holdfasts securely anchoring it on the substrate. Additionally, our study revealed that the E. cava-dominated kelp forest in Seongsan has an elevated potential for high resilience and resistance due to turf-forming, algae-facilitated high recruitment rates and local hydrodynamics—specifically, relatively low seawater temperature and active water movement. Lastly, we identified the presence of M. millepora, a primarily subtropical species of hard coral, on the coast of Seongsan after the typhoon. The appearance of this opportunistic species implies an ongoing turnover of the biogenic habitat from kelp-dominated to coral-dominated, fueled by ongoing changes in climate. However, further research and monitoring are needed to comprehend the ecological implications of the observed changes.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jmse11051035/s1, Table S1: Results of ANOSIM for comparison of benthic community composition based on before/after typhoon, month and depth factors.; Table S2: SIMPER analysis of dissimilarity before and after the typhoon.; Table S3: ANOVA results for differences in the density of morphological forms of E. cava according to month and depth factors.; Table S4: Summary of the percentage cover and density of E. cava reported from several sites in Jeju Island, Republic of Korea.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.-T.L., D.-H.K. and T.K. (Taihun Kim); methodology, K.-T.L. and T.K. (Taihun Kim); software, K.-T.L. and G.P.; validation, H.-S.Y., S.K.C. and D.-H.K.; formal analysis, K.-T.L., G.P. and T.K. (Taeho Kim); investigation, K.-T.L., T.K. (Taeho Kim), H.-S.Y. and T.K. (Taihun Kim); data curation, K.-T.L., G.P. and T.K. (Taihun Kim); writing, K.-T.L. and T.K. (Taihun Kim); visualization, K.-T.L. and G.P.; supervision, T.K. (Taihun Kim); funding acquisition, H.-S.Y. and D.-H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), grant numbers PEA0113, PEA0116.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation to the administrative and technical support from the Jeju Marine Research Center, KIOST.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Photographs of typhoon impacts at Seongsan, Jeju Island, Korea. (a) Ecklonia cava deposited on the coastal intertidal zone at Rhodolith Beach on Udo Island near Seongsan. (b) E. cava detached from the benthic substrate. (c) E. cava holdfasts with the stipe and/or blade removed at 10 m depth. (d) A colony of scleractinian coral Montipora millepora (yellow arrow) revealed after the typhoon at 15 m depth.
Figure 1. Photographs of typhoon impacts at Seongsan, Jeju Island, Korea. (a) Ecklonia cava deposited on the coastal intertidal zone at Rhodolith Beach on Udo Island near Seongsan. (b) E. cava detached from the benthic substrate. (c) E. cava holdfasts with the stipe and/or blade removed at 10 m depth. (d) A colony of scleractinian coral Montipora millepora (yellow arrow) revealed after the typhoon at 15 m depth.
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Figure 2. Location of the study area at Seongsan on Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. The sites displayed in orange are from this study, and those in yellow are from previously published studies about E. cava population. (Map Source: https://map.kakao.com, accessed on 11 April 2023).
Figure 2. Location of the study area at Seongsan on Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. The sites displayed in orange are from this study, and those in yellow are from previously published studies about E. cava population. (Map Source: https://map.kakao.com, accessed on 11 April 2023).
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Figure 3. 1 m2 photo-quadrats from the 100-m line transects captured with an underwater camera at maximum resolution (7952 × 5304 pixels). (a) A photo-quadrat from May before the typhoon showing a dominance of adult E. cava at 10 m depth. (b) A photo-quadrat from November after the typhoon showing recruits (blue arrows), adults (yellow arrows), and holdfasts (red arrows) of E. cava at 15 m depth.
Figure 3. 1 m2 photo-quadrats from the 100-m line transects captured with an underwater camera at maximum resolution (7952 × 5304 pixels). (a) A photo-quadrat from May before the typhoon showing a dominance of adult E. cava at 10 m depth. (b) A photo-quadrat from November after the typhoon showing recruits (blue arrows), adults (yellow arrows), and holdfasts (red arrows) of E. cava at 15 m depth.
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Figure 4. Mean percentage cover of major functional groups recorded along 100-m line transects installed at 10 m and 15 m water depths at Seongsan from May, September, and November 2022. The whiskers of the bar graph represent the standard deviation.
Figure 4. Mean percentage cover of major functional groups recorded along 100-m line transects installed at 10 m and 15 m water depths at Seongsan from May, September, and November 2022. The whiskers of the bar graph represent the standard deviation.
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Figure 5. (a) Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of the square-root transformed data, showing the relative contributions of major benthic species to the different communities at Seongsan at different months. Each point represents a replicate (i.e., photo-quadrat) and each arrow represents a species. (b) The contributions of major benthic species within months by SIMPER analysis of similarities.
Figure 5. (a) Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of the square-root transformed data, showing the relative contributions of major benthic species to the different communities at Seongsan at different months. Each point represents a replicate (i.e., photo-quadrat) and each arrow represents a species. (b) The contributions of major benthic species within months by SIMPER analysis of similarities.
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Figure 6. The density (ind./m2) of different morphological forms (recruit, adult, and holdfast) of E. cava observed at depths of 10 m and 15 m at Seongsan in Jeju Island after the typhoon. The whiskers of the bar graph represent the standard deviation.
Figure 6. The density (ind./m2) of different morphological forms (recruit, adult, and holdfast) of E. cava observed at depths of 10 m and 15 m at Seongsan in Jeju Island after the typhoon. The whiskers of the bar graph represent the standard deviation.
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Table
Table 1. Mean percentage cover of benthic organisms recorded along 100-m line transects installed at 10 m and 15 m depths at Seongsan before and after super typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’.
Table 1. Mean percentage cover of benthic organisms recorded along 100-m line transects installed at 10 m and 15 m depths at Seongsan before and after super typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’.
CategoriesClassificationSpeciesPercentage Cover (%)
10 m15 m
Before
Typhoon		After TyphoonBefore
Typhoon		After Typhoon
MaySeptemberNovemberMaySeptemberNovember
KelpsCanopy-forming brown algaeEcklonia cava78.236.524.653.719.427.3
Sargassum spp.11.90.82.316.92.10.9
Turf-forming algaeGeniculate coralline algae 3.019.113.76.722.816.3
Filamentous turf 3.42.3 2.04.1
Non-geniculate coralline algaeRhodolith and CCA 1.416.022.95.818.213.8
Other macroalgaeChlorophytaCladophora sp.0.30.80.41.92.90.6
PhaeophytaPadina sp. 0.6
RhodophytaDichotomaria sp. 0.3
Grateloupia sp.0.11.42.41.12.72.8
Gelidium sp. 0.1 0.10.6
Hildenbrandia sp. 0.70.90.22.20.6
Peyssonnelia sp.0.11.22.60.21.17.0
Plocamium sp.0.42.96.12.13.36.6
Pterocladiella sp. 0.1
Other sessile invertebratesPorifera Hymeniacidon sp. 0.10.10.1
Petrosia sp. 0.1
Spirastrella sp. 0.40.20.20.2
Cnidaria Alveopora japonica 0.1
Montipora millepora 1.1 0.40.2
Heteractis sp. 0.1
Tunicata Herdmania sp. 0.1
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Lee, K.-T.; Perrois, G.; Yang, H.-S.; Kim, T.; Choi, S.K.; Kang, D.-H.; Kim, T. Impact of Super Typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ on Density of Kelp Forest and Associated Benthic Communities in Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11051035

AMA Style

Lee K-T, Perrois G, Yang H-S, Kim T, Choi SK, Kang D-H, Kim T. Impact of Super Typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ on Density of Kelp Forest and Associated Benthic Communities in Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2023; 11(5):1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11051035

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lee, Kyeong-Tae, Garance Perrois, Hyun-Sung Yang, Taeho Kim, Sun Kyeong Choi, Do-Hyung Kang, and Taihun Kim. 2023. "Impact of Super Typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ on Density of Kelp Forest and Associated Benthic Communities in Jeju Island, Republic of Korea" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 5: 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11051035

APA Style

Lee, K. -T., Perrois, G., Yang, H. -S., Kim, T., Choi, S. K., Kang, D. -H., & Kim, T. (2023). Impact of Super Typhoon ‘Hinnamnor’ on Density of Kelp Forest and Associated Benthic Communities in Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(5), 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11051035

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