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J. Intell.
Volume 13
Issue 1
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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 1 (January 2025) – 11 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): We investigated whether parents’ and teachers’ evaluations of children’s intellectual investment would predict a change in children’s need for cognition (NFC) over one year. A total of 565 third-graders, 452 parents, and 39 teachers were surveyed in 2021 and 2022. Longitudinal data were analyzed by means of latent change score models. Changes in the teachers’ evaluations and the children’s cognitive engagement differed between the children. However, there was no relation between the parents’ or teachers’ assessments and the change in the children’s NFC. The change in the teachers’ assessment was negatively related to their initial judgment and the children’s age and positively related to the pupils’ fluid intelligence. View this paper
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24 pages, 3819 KiB  
Article
An Embedding-Based Semantic Analysis Approach: A Preliminary Study on Redundancy Detection in Psychological Concepts Operationalized by Scales
by Zhen Huang, Yitian Long, Kaiping Peng and Song Tong
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010011 - 16 Jan 2025
Viewed by 493
Abstract
As psychological research progresses, the issue of concept overlap becomes increasing evident, adding to participant burden and complicating data interpretation. This study introduces an Embedding-based Semantic Analysis Approach (ESAA) for detecting redundancy in psychological concepts, which are operationalized through their respective scales, using [...] Read more.
As psychological research progresses, the issue of concept overlap becomes increasing evident, adding to participant burden and complicating data interpretation. This study introduces an Embedding-based Semantic Analysis Approach (ESAA) for detecting redundancy in psychological concepts, which are operationalized through their respective scales, using natural language processing techniques. The ESAA utilizes OpenAI’s text-embedding-3-large model to generate high-dimensional semantic vectors (i.e., embeddings) of scale items and applies hierarchical clustering to group semantically similar items, revealing potential redundancy. Three preliminary experiments evaluated the ESAA’s ability to (1) identify semantically similar items, (2) differentiate semantically distinct items, and (3) uncover overlap between scales of concepts known for redundancy issues. Additionally, comparative analyses assessed the ESAA’s robustness and incremental validity against the advanced chatbots based on GPT-4. The results demonstrated that the ESAA consistently produced stable outcomes and outperformed all evaluated chatbots. As an objective approach for analyzing relationships between concepts operationalized as scales, the ESAA holds promise for advancing research on theory refinement and scale optimization. Full article
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16 pages, 1357 KiB  
Article
Development and Validation of a Game-Based Assessment for Complex Problem Solving
by Jian Li, Yi Ming Li, Yun-Xuan Xing, Bo Zhang, Yun Tang and Fritz Drasgow
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010009 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 657
Abstract
Complex problem solving (CPS) refers to a set of higher-order capacities that allow an individual to interact with a dynamic environment and solve complex problems. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate Sokoban, a game-based assessment of the planning–execution stage [...] Read more.
Complex problem solving (CPS) refers to a set of higher-order capacities that allow an individual to interact with a dynamic environment and solve complex problems. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate Sokoban, a game-based assessment of the planning–execution stage of the CPS framework proposed by PISA 2012. The psychometric properties of this instrument were examined in a large sample of Chinese students (n = 1145) ranging from elementary to tertiary education. The results supported the two-faceted nature of Sokoban, as well as providing preliminary evidence about criterion-related and predictive validity for the planning–execution stages of complex problem solving. These empirical results lend support to the validity of this game-based assessment, as well as its practical implications in educational settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurocognitive Processes: Measurement, Connections to Academic Achievement and Clinical Applications)
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17 pages, 1239 KiB  
Article
Teachers’ and Parents’ Assessments of Primary School Children’s Intellectual Investment as Predictors of Change in Need for Cognition
by Anke Hufer-Thamm, Rolf Jürgens, Sebastian Bergold and Ricarda Steinmayr
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010010 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 648
Abstract
The present study investigated whether parents’ and teachers’ evaluations of children’s intellectual investment would predict a change in children’s need for cognition (NFC) over one year. An exploratory look at how teachers’ evaluations are predicted by a range of factors was also taken. [...] Read more.
The present study investigated whether parents’ and teachers’ evaluations of children’s intellectual investment would predict a change in children’s need for cognition (NFC) over one year. An exploratory look at how teachers’ evaluations are predicted by a range of factors was also taken. N = 565 third-graders (298 girls; Mage = 8.40, SD = 0.59) and teachers (N = 39) were surveyed in 2021 and 2022. The parents (N = 452) provided the data in 2021. Longitudinal data were analyzed by means of latent change score models (LCSMs). Changes in the teachers’ evaluations and in the children’s cognitive engagement differed between the children. However, there was no effect of the parents’ or teachers’ assessments on the development of the children’s NFC. The change in the teachers’ assessment was negatively related to their initial judgment and the children’s age; it was positively related to the pupils’ fluid intelligence. The results and implications are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Motivation)
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23 pages, 1760 KiB  
Article
Teachers’ Growth Mindset, Perceived School Climate, and Perceived Parental Autonomy Support Moderate the Relationship Between Students’ Growth Mindset and Academic Achievement
by Kai Zhang and Wu-Jing He
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010008 - 10 Jan 2025
Viewed by 714
Abstract
This study investigates the moderating effects of several contextual factors (i.e., teachers’ growth mindset, perceived school climate, and perceived parental autonomy support) on the relationship between students’ growth mindset and academic achievement. Drawing on Dweck’s growth mindset theory and recent research findings that [...] Read more.
This study investigates the moderating effects of several contextual factors (i.e., teachers’ growth mindset, perceived school climate, and perceived parental autonomy support) on the relationship between students’ growth mindset and academic achievement. Drawing on Dweck’s growth mindset theory and recent research findings that highlight the context sensitivity of the growth mindset, we hypothesize that supportive environments strengthen the positive impact of students’ growth mindset on academic outcomes. A sample of 358 middle school students (53.8% female; Mage = 13.38 years, SD = 2.20) from public schools in Shanghai City, mainland China, was assessed via three validated instruments: (1) the Growth Mindset Inventory, which is used to measure students’ and teachers’ beliefs about intelligence; (2) the Delaware School Climate Survey for Students, which is used to assess students’ perceptions of the school climate; and (3) the Perceived Parental Autonomy Support Scale, which is used to evaluate students’ perceived parental autonomy support. Academic achievement was measured by district-level final exam scores. The results of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that teachers’ growth mindset, perceived school climate support (e.g., teacher–student and student–student relations, fairness of rules, school safety, liking of school), and the perception of positive parental autonomy support (e.g., choice, rationale, acknowledgment) positively moderated the relationship between students’ growth mindset and academic achievement. In contrast, the perception of negative parental autonomy factors (e.g., punishment threats, performance pressure, guilt-inducing criticism) negatively moderated this relationship. These results indicate that the relationship between students’ growth mindset and academic achievement may vary depending on contextual factors, highlighting the importance of considering both positive and negative influences when designing educational strategies. Full article
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13 pages, 794 KiB  
Article
Differences in Personality Between High-Ability and Average-Ability University Students
by Juan Francisco Flores-Bravo, Elena Rodríguez-Naveiras, María de los Dolores Valadez Sierra, Dylan Costantini and África Borges
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010007 - 7 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1439
Abstract
Despite the growing body of research examining the personality traits of individuals with high abilities, little clarity exists about how they differ from the general population, especially within the university context. This study aimed to identify distinct personality traits by examining 268 high-ability [...] Read more.
Despite the growing body of research examining the personality traits of individuals with high abilities, little clarity exists about how they differ from the general population, especially within the university context. This study aimed to identify distinct personality traits by examining 268 high-ability university students alongside a matched average-ability group through a retrospective ex post facto design. Results revealed significant differences only in the trait of responsibility (p = 0.037), with lower scores observed among high-ability students. This outcome may be related to specific academic environmental factors, such as insufficient challenges. It can be concluded that, although stereotypes often associate high-ability students with certain personality traits, such as openness to experience, the present results do not reflect such differences. Therefore, it is important to conduct well-designed studies to determine the characteristics of high-ability individuals and how they differ from average-ability students. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Theoretical Contributions to Intelligence)
17 pages, 861 KiB  
Article
Cognitive and Emotional Resilience in Parents with Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder During COVID-19: The Role of Promoting Variables
by Aziz Sarhani-Robles, María Guillot-Valdés, María Auxiliadora Robles-Bello and David Sánchez-Teruel
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010006 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 870
Abstract
The pandemic resulting from the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has entailed social and psychological consequences for the Spanish population, with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) being particularly vulnerable due to their genetic characteristics. The present study focuses on the efforts of parents of [...] Read more.
The pandemic resulting from the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has entailed social and psychological consequences for the Spanish population, with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) being particularly vulnerable due to their genetic characteristics. The present study focuses on the efforts of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder to improve their situation during the pandemic. In particular, the objective is to identify promoting variables (subjective well-being, positive mental health, social support, humour, cognitive reappraisal, and self-esteem) and sociodemographic variables that predict resilience, marking positive coping with this adverse situation. Furthermore, the study conceptually explores the potential role of emotional intelligence in resilience-building processes. We hypothesised that higher scores in these promoting variables would predict greater resilience, with emotional intelligence potentially serving as an underlying framework. The methodology employed in this study is as follows: A cross-sectional predictive study was conducted on a sample of 799 parents using an online questionnaire administered during the social confinement resulting from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The information analysed is based on data provided by the parents. Statistical methods included Student’s t-tests, Pearson’s correlations, and stepwise multivariate regression analysis to identify predictors of resilience. The results of the study are presented below. Significant resilience scores and resilience prediction were identified in participants based on positive mental health, emotion regulation, sense of humour, social support, age, and employment status (self-employed). Relations with emotional intelligence were identified, particularly in the domains of emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, and positive mental health. Discussion: The necessity of an intervention that prioritises the empowerment of resilience in the target population is substantiated. Practical implications suggest leveraging emotional intelligence strategies to enhance resilience in this population. This study highlights the importance the aforementioned variables, in addition to potential strategies for enhancing the sociodemographic circumstances of the families. Full article
15 pages, 784 KiB  
Editorial
Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments
by Linden J. Ball and Beth H. Richardson
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010005 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 629
Abstract
This Special Issue aims to capture current theoretical and methodological developments in the field of metareasoning, which is concerned with the metacognitive processes that monitor and control our ongoing thinking and reasoning [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)
16 pages, 2853 KiB  
Article
Reading Comprehension in Older Adults—Effects of Age, Educational Level, and Reading Habits
by Bernardo Riffo, Carlos Rojas, Andrea Helo, Mónica Véliz, Paula Urzúa, Gloria Gutierrez and Ernesto Guerra
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010004 - 31 Dec 2024
Viewed by 926
Abstract
Older adults in the third-age group (60–79 years) maintain reading comprehension skills similar to those of younger adults, but little is known about individuals in the fourth age (80+ years). This study investigates differences in reading comprehension in a between-group design. We evaluated [...] Read more.
Older adults in the third-age group (60–79 years) maintain reading comprehension skills similar to those of younger adults, but little is known about individuals in the fourth age (80+ years). This study investigates differences in reading comprehension in a between-group design. We evaluated a sample of 150 older adults, comprising 86 third-age and 64 fourth-age participants. We examined the influence of sex, cognitive functioning, formal education, self-perceived reading difficulties, and reading habits on their text comprehension abilities. The results show that fourth-age adults have a significant decline in reading comprehension compared to third-age adults. Strong reading habits were positively associated with better comprehension across both groups, suggesting that regular reading may buffer against age-related cognitive decline. Poor readers read less frequently and perceived greater difficulty with the tasks. Cognitive functioning and education did not significantly influence comprehension—possibly due to the generally low education levels in the sample. However, strong reading habits appeared to compensate for these limitations. These findings suggest a potential protective role of lifelong reading habits and highlight the need for interventions to support reading skills in older adults, especially those with lower educational backgrounds. Future research should explore these dynamics further to enhance cognitive resilience in the oldest populations. Full article
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17 pages, 1093 KiB  
Article
Development of a Video-Test of Emotional Intelligence for Teachers (ViTIED)
by María-Pilar Berrios-Martos and Raquel Palomera
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010003 - 30 Dec 2024
Viewed by 647
Abstract
Emotional Intelligence (EI) in teaching is associated with various educational outcomes and processes. However, it has typically been measured through self-reports and general EI assessments, lacking a specific performance test with greater ecological validity in relation to the demands of the professional educational [...] Read more.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) in teaching is associated with various educational outcomes and processes. However, it has typically been measured through self-reports and general EI assessments, lacking a specific performance test with greater ecological validity in relation to the demands of the professional educational context. This study describes the development and validation results of the Video-Test of Emotional Intelligence for Teachers (ViTIED), a new performance-based measure to assess the EI of secondary education teachers based on ability EI model and the situational judgment test paradigm. The test comprises 12 video scenes designed to elicit intra- and interpersonal processes, as well as both positive and negative emotions. A total of 163 Spanish teachers (36% male, 64% female; mean age = 40.32 years) completed the ViTIED, along with personality, perceived EI, and burnout assessments. Test scores provide initial evidence of adequate reliability, as well as content, convergent, and divergent validity. Continued validation of this measure will benefit evaluation and intervention processes with teachers, as well as research on the impact of teachers’ EI on the teaching–learning processes and the well-being of the educational community. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Digital Technologies for Intelligence and Emotional intelligence)
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21 pages, 1649 KiB  
Article
Mental Rotation Performance: Contribution of Item Features to Difficulties and Functional Adaptation
by Mehdi Rajeb, Andrew T. Krist, Qingzhou Shi, Daniel O. Oyeniran, Stefanie A. Wind and Joni M. Lakin
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010002 - 30 Dec 2024
Viewed by 871
Abstract
Mental rotation is an important aspect of spatial ability. While the importance of measuring mental rotation has been explored, disputes still exist within the literature surrounding sources of item difficulty in mental rotation tests (MRTs). Furthermore, gender differences in MRT performance are often [...] Read more.
Mental rotation is an important aspect of spatial ability. While the importance of measuring mental rotation has been explored, disputes still exist within the literature surrounding sources of item difficulty in mental rotation tests (MRTs). Furthermore, gender differences in MRT performance are often seen but not fully understood. In the current study, we analyzed sources of item difficulty in a set of spatial ability test items using the Linear Logistic Test Model (LLTM). We found that items with more cubes, color differences, and higher rotational complexity tend to be more difficult, whereas items that contain occlusion, a mirrored structure, and a homogenous configuration type tend to be easier. Next, using Differential Component Functioning (DCF) analysis, we analyzed gender differences across these different item characteristics, finding that the number of cubes and color characteristics made questions more difficult for males when compared to females. The results and implications of this study are discussed in further detail. Full article
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20 pages, 780 KiB  
Viewpoint
Are “Extracurricular” Activities Really Extracurricular? The Activities That Matter Least in School Are the Ones That Best Teach Real-World Critical and Creative Thinking
by Robert J. Sternberg, Sherry Lin and Eric C. K. Nguyen
J. Intell. 2025, 13(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13010001 - 27 Dec 2024
Viewed by 737
Abstract
Curricula in school often do not prepare students adequately for the kinds of critical and creative thinking that they will need in their careers and lives. Part of the problem is that the characteristics of real-world problems differ greatly from the characteristics of [...] Read more.
Curricula in school often do not prepare students adequately for the kinds of critical and creative thinking that they will need in their careers and lives. Part of the problem is that the characteristics of real-world problems differ greatly from the characteristics of many curricular activities, and so what the students learn in school about critical and creative thinking may fail when generalized to everyday problems. We suggest that extracurricular activities, such as in aspects of musical and athletic training, often prepare students better for real-world challenges. We describe the kinds of methods that can be used in curricular instruction to better prepare students for the challenges of the everyday world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)
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