Next Article in Journal
Fungal Biomarkers in Traditional Starter Determine the Chemical Characteristics of Turbid Rice Wine from the Rim of the Sichuan Basin, China
Next Article in Special Issue
Blackcurrant Alleviates Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis in Mice
Previous Article in Journal
Evaluation of the Feasibility of Harvest Optimisation of Soft-Shell Mud Crab (Scylla paramamosain) from the Perspective of Nutritional Values
Previous Article in Special Issue
Protective Effect of Virgin Coconut Oil on Osteopenia Induced by High Refined Carbohydrate-Containing Diet in Mice
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Foods
Volume 12
Issue 3
10.3390/foods12030584
foods-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Kimchi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis via Attenuating Inflammatory Responses

by
Hye-Jung Moon
1,
Suk-Heung Oh
2,
Ki-Bum Park
3 and
Youn-Soo Cha
1,4,*
1
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Food & Biotechnology & Woosuk Institute of Smart Convergence Life Care, Woosuk University, Wanju 55338, Republic of Korea
3
Institute of Kimchi Technology, Daesang Co., Icheon 17384, Republic of Korea
4
K-Food Research Center, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2023, 12(3), 584; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030584
Submission received: 6 January 2023 / Revised: 18 January 2023 / Accepted: 27 January 2023 / Published: 30 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Whole Foods and Novel Ingredients with Immunomodulatory, Antioxidant, and Anti-inflammatory Properties)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is caused by inflammation only in the mucosa of the colon, and its incidence is increasing worldwide. The intake of probiotics is known to have a beneficial effect on the development of UC. In this study, we investigated the alleviating effects of kimchi (KC), a fermented food rich in probiotics, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 (DRC) isolated from kimchi on UC. A freeze-dried kimchi suspension and DRC were orally given to mice at a dose of 1 × 109 CFU/day for 3 weeks. Furthermore, 3% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in drinking water was given to induce UC. The KC and DRC groups reduced symptoms of colitis, such as disease activity index, decrease in colon length, colon weight-to-length ratio, and pathological damage to the colon caused by DSS treatment. The KC and DRC groups decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) in the colon tissues. At the mRNA and protein expression levels in the colon tissue, KC and DRC groups downregulated inflammatory factors and upregulated tight junction-related factors. Therefore, DRC, as well as KC supplementation, are potent in alleviating UC by improving the inflammatory response and mucosal barrier function in the colon.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis (UC), occurs frequently in the West and has become more common in the East in recent decades to the point where it now requires worldwide management [1,2]. A chronic disease characterized by recurrent inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, IBD’s exact cause is unknown, but genetic susceptibility, the environment, intestinal microbiota, and mucosal immune response are assumed to be contributing factors. An imbalance in intestinal microbiota due to genetic and environmental factors can destroy a mucosal immune system and damage the intestinal barrier [2,3,4]. Among the various manifestations of IBD, UC occurs more frequently than Crohn’s disease and has the characteristic that mucosal inflammation occurs only in the colon [1,2,5]. Cases of UC usually present with bloody stool, abdominal pain, and rectal urgency. Biologics such as mesalamine, anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF), small-molecule Janus kinase inhibitors, and anti-integrin are used to treat UC. However, side effects such as immunosuppression and the need for surgery after failure to respond to drug treatment have been reported [6,7]. Such drugs are secondary alternatives that block the response of the inflammatory cascade, not primary solutions [8]. Therefore, it is more important to inhibit the development of UC, and to do so, the intestinal microbiota and immune systems need to maintain homeostasis.
Diets reportedly affect intestinal microbial diversity, barrier function, and immune tolerance, resulting in UC progression. Consumption of highly processed foods, refined sugars, and saturated fats exacerbate colon inflammation, whereas fresh fruits, dietary fiber, omega-3 fatty acids, and probiotics improve symptoms of UC [4,8,9,10]. Probiotics such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium have been shown to enhance barrier function by increasing the production of tight junction (TJ) protein and mucin by interacting with intestinal epithelial cells. They also reduce the inflammatory response by inhibiting various signaling pathways, such as nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) [8,10,11].
Kimchi is a traditional vegetable fermented food in Korea. It is made by fermenting cabbage and radishes with salt, garlic, red pepper powder, and salted fish with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) [12]. Kimchi contains organic acids, vitamins, bacteriocins, dietary fiber, and flavoring compounds, as well as potential probiotics [12,13]. The major LAB genera of kimchi in the fermentation process are Leconostoc, Lactobacillus, and Weisella. The microbial community in kimchi varies depending on the ingredients, the presence or absence of a starter, the ripening period, and temperature. Leuconostoc and Weisella dominate in the early- and mid-fermentation periods, and Lactobacillus dominates during the late fermentation of cabbage kimchi at low temperatures [14,15,16,17,18,19]. Among these strains, the genus Leuconostoc was shown to convert fructose to mannitol, which gives kimchi a refreshing taste [12,16]. Leuconostoc is a major strain in ripe kimchi and is used primarily as a starter for the promotion of the preferred varieties of commercially produced kimchi [16,20,21]. Various functions of LAB isolated from kimchi have been reported. Leuconostoc (Leu.) citreum is associated with immunomodulatory and anti-arthritis effects; Lactiplantibacillus (Lpb.) plantarum (formerly Lactobacillus plantarum) LRCC 5273 has anti-hypercholesterolemia effects; Weissella cibaria JW15 has anti-inflammatory effects; and Levilactobacillus (Lev.) brevis (formerly Lactobacillus brevis) OPK-3 has anti-obesity effects [12,13,22,23,24,25,26]. LAB isolated from kimchi Lactobacillus, including Lacticaseibacillus (Lcb.) paracasei (formerly Lactobacillus paracasei) LS2, Lev. brevis G-101, and Latilactobacillus (Lat.) curvatus WiKim38, reportedly ameliorated colitis in a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mouse model [12,13,27,28,29]. However, few studies have been reported on the protective effects of Leu. mesenteroides, a major strain of kimchi, against colitis. In a previous study, DRC isolated from kimchi was reported to have high acid and bile tolerance and mannitol-production ability [30]. The purpose of this study was to observe whether Leu. mesenteroides alleviate colitis, as well as to compare the anti-inflammatory effects when Leu. mesenteroides was consumed alone or in the form of kimchi.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Culture of Leu. mesenteroides

Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 (DRC) were provided by Daesang Co., Ltd. (Seoul, Republic of Korea). DRC was subcultured for 24 h at 25 °C in MRS broth (BD Difco, Detroit, MI, USA). The cultured strains were centrifuged (1200× g, 5 min, 4 °C) and washed twice with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The collected pellets were resuspended using a 20% glycerol solution and then stored at −70 °C until use. To administer to mice, the stored strain was thawed, washed twice with PBS, and then adjusted to a concentration of 5 × 109 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL with PBS. Then 0.2 mL of this suspension (1 × 109 CFU) was given to each mouse every day.

2.2. Preparation of Kimchi Samples

Commercial kimchi manufactured by the method of Korean agent No. 10-1809447 was provided by Daesang Co., Ltd. (Seoul, Republic of Korea), and freeze-dried to make a powder [30]. The LAB counts in freeze-dried kimchi were tested using a 10-fold serial dilution with PBS. The diluted solution was plated on MRS agar (BD Difco, Detroit, MI, USA) and incubated for 48 h at 25 °C. The freeze-dried kimchi, in which LAB counts were confirmed, was suspended in PBS, and 1 × 109 CFU/0.2 mL per mouse was administered orally every day.

2.3. Experimental Design Inducing Colitis with DSS

Four-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were purchased from Dooyeol Biotech (Seoul, Republic of Korea). All mice were provided with a chow diet and maintained at 22 ± 3 °C with a relative humidity of 55 ± 5 °C in a 12 h light/dark cycle. After a 3-week adaptation period, the mice were randomly divided into 4 groups (total n = 32, n = 8 per group): a normal group (ND), a DSS-treated group, a kimchi-treated (KC) group (administered DSS and kimchi), and a DRC group (administered DSS and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506). Then 0.2 mL of PBS (ND and DSS groups) or 0.2 mL suspension containing 1 × 109 CFU of LAB (KC and DRC groups) was administered to mice by oral gavage daily for 3 weeks. Access to water and an AIN-93G diet was supplied during all experimental periods. In the second week of the experiment, 3% (w/v) DSS (36–50 kDa, MP Biomedicals, Solon, OH, USA) in drinking water was provided to all but the ND group to induce colitis (Figure 1). All experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of Jeonbuk National University (approval number JBNU 2021-02).
Feces were collected on the 20th day of the experiment and stored at −70 °C until analysis. At the end of the experiment, mice that had been fasting for 12 h were sacrificed. Blood and colonic tissues were obtained. Blood was centrifuged (1500× g, 15 min, 4 °C) to separate serum and placed at −70 °C until analysis. Colon tissue was taken from the caecum to the rectum, the length measured, and the weight measured after removing the feces from the colon. The rectal part of the colon tissue was cut and fixed in a 10% formalin solution. The remaining colon tissue was rapidly frozen with liquid nitrogen and then kept at −70 °C.

2.4. Disease Activity Index (DAI)

During the induction of colitis with DSS, body weight, stool consistency, and gross bleeding were checked daily. The DAI score was determined following a procedure described by Mennigen et al. (2009) [31]. Scores were calculated according to the following values: weight loss (0 = none; 1 = 1–5%; 2 = 5–10%; 3 = 10–20%; 4 = >20%), stool consistency (0 = normal; 2 = loose stools; 4 = watery diarrhea), and gross bleeding (0 = none; 2 = occult bleeding; 4 = gross bleeding). The DAI score was expressed as the sum of the body weight loss, the consistency of the stool, and the gross bleeding, divided by 3.

2.5. Colonic Histological Damage

Histological damage to colon tissues was confirmed by requesting an examination by the KP&T (Korean Pathology Technical Center, Chungcheongbuk-do, Cheongju, Republic of Korea). Colon tissues fixed in 4% formalin were made into paraffin sections, and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was performed. Stained slides were verified at 100× and 200× magnification by an Axiophot Zeiss ZI microscope (Carl Zeiss, Gottingen, Germany) at the Center for University-Wide Research Facilities (CURF) at Jeonbuk National University.

2.6. Microbial Count in the Feces

A selective medium was used to confirm Bifidobacterium, Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Salmonella), and Lactobacillus in feces [32]. The collected feces were diluted by decimal dilution with sterile PBS. The dilution was dispensed into each medium, spread and cultured, and expressed as log CFU/g. Blood liver agar (BL agar, MBcell, Seoul, Republic of Korea) and desoxycholate agar (MBcell, Seoul, Republic of Korea) were cultured in anaerobic conditions at 37 °C for 1 day and 2 days, respectively. MRS agar (Difco, Detroit, MI, USA) was cultured aerobically at 37 °C for 1 day.

2.7. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

In serum and colon, the inflammatory-related cytokines TNF-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 were analyzed according to manufacturer instructions (R&D systems, Minneapolis, MN, USA). Serum prepared as described in the above method was used. The colon tissue was prepared as follows: A 0.1 g sample of colonic tissue was homogenized on ice with 1% protease inhibitors and 1% phosphatase inhibitor in mL of chilled RIPA lysis buffer. After that, the lysate was centrifuged at 15,000× g and 4 °C for 10 min to obtain a supernatant for use in the experiment.

2.8. Quantitative Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reactions (qRT-PCR)

Total RNA from colon tissue was extracted with a RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen, Duesseldorf, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The extracted RNA was synthesized into cDNA by reverse transcription using a PrimeScript RT reagent kit (TaKaRa Bio, Otsu, Japan). The synthesized cDNA was amplified by qRT-PCR amplification using SYBR Green and appropriate primers (Table S1). The reaction of qRT-PCR was pre-denaturation at 95 °C for 10 min, and then 40 cycles were performed under the thermocycling conditions for amplification in denaturation (95 °C, 15 s), annealing (60 °C, 20 s), and extension (72 °C, 35 s). The relative mRNA expression of the target genes was calculated using the 2-delta delta Ct method by β-actin as reference. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as control.

2.9. Western Blotting

Proteins were extracted from colon tissues using a RIPA buffer (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA) with phosphatase inhibitor and protease inhibitor. Total protein concentration was measured with a bicinchoninic acid protein kit (Pierce, Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). Proteins were loaded onto SDS–PAGE and electrophoresed with molecular weight size. After transferring them to a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane (Bio-rad, Hercules, CA, USA), they were blocked with a 5% bovine serum albumin solution. The primary antibody was allowed to react overnight at 4 °C and washed with TBST, and the secondary antibody was attached at room temperature for 1 h. After washing with TBST, the membrane with an enhanced chemiluminescence solution (GE Health, Buckinghamshire, UK) was allowed to react and was observed with ChemiDoc (Bio-rad, Hercules, CA, USA). Protein bands were normalized to β-actin and quantified with ND groups using ImageJ software (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA). The list of antibodies used in the study is shown in Table S2.

2.10. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using the program SPSS 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Armonk, NY, USA). The data for the change in body weight and DAI, gut microbial counts, and levels of protein expression in the colon were the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Data for other parameters were presented as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 6–8 per group). The colon length, the image of H&E staining, and the image of the Western blot were representative photographs of each group. Significant differences among the four groups were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Duncan’s post hoc test, with different letters above the values. The p-value of <0.05 was used to determine the statistical significance of all data.

3. Results

3.1. Effects of Kimchi and DRC on Body Weight and Colitis Symptoms

In order to examine the effect of restoring colitis, the samples were administered to mice for one week, and colitis was generated with DSS. On the 12th day after inducing colitis with 3% DSS, the DSS groups began to show significant changes in body weight compared with the ND group (Figure 2A and Figure S1). Compared with the DSS group, there began to be a significant difference in the DRC group and KC group on the 12th day after drinking DSS. The final body weight was significantly higher in the KC and DRC groups than in the DSS group. As for DAI, from the 2nd day of DSS administration, all experimental groups showed significant differences compared with the DSS group (Figure 2B). At the end of the experiment, the DAI scores were significantly lower in all experimental groups compared with the DSS group. Therefore, the KC and DRC were found to relieve symptoms of colitis induced by DSS.

3.2. Effects of Kimchi and DRC on Colonic Tissue Damage

The colon length of the DSS group was significantly reduced compared with the ND group, confirming that the colon tissue was damaged (Figure 3A,B). The KC and DRC groups not only showed significantly higher colon lengths compared with the DSS group, but lengths similar to those of the ND group. The weight per colon length was significantly higher in the DSS group compared with the ND group (Figure 3C). In the KC and DRC groups, the value of the weight per colon length was significantly lower than in the DSS group.
Observations of histopathological changes in the colon revealed no damage to the crypt, mucosal structure, and goblet cells in the ND group (Figure 3D). Compared with the ND group, the DSS group experienced crypt destruction, reduced goblet cells, inflammatory cell infiltration, and colonic mucosal erosion. The KC and DRC groups were associated with improvements in the pathological changes caused by DSS. In particular, the KC group appeared to alleviate the decrease in goblet cells and inflammatory cell infiltration compared with the DRC group.

3.3. Effects of Kimchi and DRC on Some Gut Microbial Counts

The number of viable cells of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Enterobacteriaceae in the feces was counted to confirm changes in the composition of the gut microbiota (Table 1). For Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Enterobacteriaceae, the number of viable cells in the DSS group was significantly higher than in the ND group. Compared with the DSS group, Enterobacteriaceae was significantly lowered in the KC group, and there was no significant difference in the DRC group, but a decreasing tendency was observed. For Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, no significant difference between the experimental group and the DSS group was seen. Therefore, KC and DRC treatment were shown to have more effect on Enterobacteriaceae than on Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus.

3.4. Effects of Kimchi and DRC on Inflammation-Related Cytokines in Serum and the Colon

Cytokines related to inflammation were tested in serum and the colon. In serum TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, the DSS group showed significantly higher values compared to the ND group, whereas no significant difference in IL-10 was seen. The levels of TNF-α and IL-1 β were significantly lower in the KC and DRC groups compared with the DSS group (Figure 4A). In colon tissue, the TNF-α value was significantly lower in the ND, KC, and DRC groups compared with the DSS group. However, IL-10 levels in the colon were significantly higher in the ND and KC groups compared with the DSS group. No significant difference in IL-1β levels of the colon was recorded for any groups (Figure 4B).

3.5. Effects of Kimchi and DRC on the Expression of Genes and Proteins Related to the Inflammatory Response in the Colon

Gene expression related to the inflammatory response was found in colon tissue (Figure 5A). In all indicators except IL-6, the ND group exhibited a significant difference compared with the DSS group. The KC group had significantly lower values of TNF-α, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) than the DSS group. The DRC group had significantly lower levels of TNF-α, NF-κB, COX-2, and iNOS compared with the DSS group. For IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, a significantly higher value was shown in all groups when compared with the DSS group. At the protein expression level, the expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 in the KC group and DRC group were significantly reduced compared to the DSS group. In particular, the DRC group showed the lowest expression level of phospho-p65 (p-p65) (Figure 5B,C).

3.6. Effects of Kimchi and DRC on the Expression of Genes and Proteins Related to Mucosal Barrier Function in the Colon

The expression of mucosal barrier function-related genes zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), Claudin-1, mucin (MUC)-2, and MUC-3 was significantly lower in the DSS group than in the ND group. Compared with the DSS group, the KC and DRC groups exhibited significantly higher values in all genes related to mucosal barrier function (Figure 6A). The expression level of the tight junction protein was confirmed using Western blot. As a result, the DRC group significantly increased the expression level of ZO-1 more than the DSS group. On the other hand, the KC group showed a low value at ZO-1 compared to the DSS group, but a significantly higher value at Claudin-1. Therefore, it seems that the KC and DRC groups can improve the barrier function (Figure 6B,C).

4. Discussion

The human intestine is directly connected to the external environment and easily exposed to external antigens. To protect the body from external antigens, intestinal mucosal tissue is known to interact with gut microorganisms to maintain the immune system [3]. The exact cause of UC is unclear, but it is known that a genetically susceptible host interacts with environmental factors, destroying the intestinal epithelial barrier, allowing bacterial or bacterial antigens into the mucosa, breaking the intestinal immune system’s homeostasis, and causing intestinal inflammatory reactions [10]. Probiotics and fermented foods containing them have been known to increase beneficial bacteria among gut microbes, protect intestinal barriers, and reduce intestinal inflammation [11,28,31,33,34,35,36,37]. Kimchi, a fermented food, is also rich in probiotics, so it was expected to have a beneficial effect against colitis [13,38,39,40]. Hence, this study attempted to investigate the protective effect of not only kimchi but also LAB isolated from kimchi (Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506) on colitis.
Exposure to DSS has been reported to cause mucosal inflammation by changing the microbial balance and destroying intestinal barrier function and the mucosa [41]. The resulting symptoms of colitis were a decrease in colon length and an increase in the colon weight/length ratio due to weight loss, bloody stool, diarrhea, and inflammatory progression [41,42]. As a result of inducing colitis with DSS while consuming kimchi and DRC, the weight loss, DAI score, colon length, and colonic weight/length ratio were significantly diminished compared with the DSS group. In addition, 109 CFU/day of kimchi and DRC were provided to mice, which were found to ameliorate symptoms of colitis. Previous studies have reported that 109 CFU/mL of Lat. curvatus WiKim38, Lev. brevis G-101, Lcb. paracasei LS2, and Lpb. plantarum AR113 improved symptoms produced by DSS, and our findings were similar [27,28,29,43].
Intestinal barrier defense mechanisms that maintain host health include microbial, mucosal, epithelial, and immune-system varieties [44]. The effects of kimchi and DRC on alterations in the intestinal barrier were observed using histology and changes in the gut microbiota during DSS-induced colitis. As revealed by histology exams, the DSS group experienced the destruction of the intestinal mucosal structure, goblet cell reduction, and inflammatory infiltration. However, in the KC and DRC groups, this intestinal damage was alleviated. Probiotics have been shown to strengthen epithelial walls, increase intestinal mucosal adhesion, and regulate the immune system [11]. Lpb. plantarum AR113, mixed probiotics (Limosilactobacillus (Lim.) reuteri (formerly Lactobacillus reuteri) RAM0101, Bacillus (Ba.) coagulans RAM1202, Bifidobacterium (B.) longum CICC6197, Clostridium (C.) butyricum RAM0216), or fermented food containing probiotics have been shown to relieve DSS-induced colitis [43,45,46]. In our results, the intake of kimchi and DRC seems to alleviate intestinal damage, similar to the function of probiotics in previous studies.
An imbalance of gut microbiota is known to cause inflammation by destroying intestinal epithelial cells, increasing intestinal permeability, and destroying mucous membranes [3,10]. In previous studies, the IBD pathogenesis showed a reduction in gut microbial diversity, and the populations of the family Enterobacteriaceae (E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella) in the intestine were found to increase in UC [10,47]. In another study that induced UC with DSS, the CFU of E. coli belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae in UC mice had considerably greater amounts than that of normal mice [48]. In another animal model that demonstrated the effect of B. lactis, Lcb. casei (formerly Lactobacillus casei), and Lactobacillus (Lb.) acidophilus on colitis, the control group showed no significant differences in Bifidobacterium compared with the sample treatment group but significantly decreased levels in Lactobacillus [49]. Our data showed that the KC group experienced no change in Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, but Enterobacteriaceae decreased significantly, which is assumed to reduce pathogens. Thus, kimchi seems to have a beneficial effect on the restoration of UC by inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria in the colon. However, since it has been known that numerous microorganisms exist in the colon, further studies will be needed on the relative abundance of gut microbiota and whether kimchi and DRC intake are related to the development of colitis.
Exposure to DSS damages the intestinal epithelial barrier, allowing intestinal pathogens to enter the intestine, triggering the activation of immune cells such as intestinal macrophages, and thereby producing an inflammatory response [41]. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 are major pro-inflammation cytokines that play important roles in the development of IBD in inflammation [44], whereas IL-10 is known as an anti-inflammatory cytokine secreted from regulatory T cells that have been shown to diminish inflammation in IBD when expressed at high levels [50]. The levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the serum were significantly lower in the KC and DRC groups compared with the DSS groups. Moreover, the KC and DRC groups were found to significantly reduce TNF-α in the colon when compared with the DSS group. IL-10 was found to be increased in the KC group in the colon. NF-κB regulates the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine-related genes, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β [51]. In addition, stimulation with TNF-α and LPS in macrophages is known to increase the expression of COX-2 and iNOS by activating NF-kB, exacerbating inflammation [32,52]. In the kimchi and DRC-treated groups, gene expression levels in the colon showed significant differences in all indicators except for IL-1β and IL-6. In the expression of proteins in the colon, kimchi and DRC were shown to inhibit COX-2 and iNOS. In particular, DRC inhibited the activity of NF-κB, known as a key transcription factor in pro-inflammatory responses. Intestinal epithelial permeability and homeostasis are crucially maintained by the intestinal epithelial barrier. TJ is a protein complex composed of Occludin, ZO-1, Claudins, and junctional adhesion molecules located at the end of the outer membrane of intestinal epithelial cells and plays an important role in regulating intestinal epithelial cells [41]. The mucosal layer protecting the intestinal epithelium is maintained by secretory (MUC-2) and membrane-bound (MUC-3) mucins produced by goblet cells [53]. In our results, KC and DRC were found to significantly increase the expression of the TJ proteins Claudin-1 and ZO-1, respectively. The administration of 108 CFU/mL of Lb. sakei K040706 isolated from soybean paste has been reported to inhibit pro-inflammatory factors such as nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and reduce inflammatory cell infiltration, thereby weakening the severity of colitis caused by DSS in mice [54]. The KC and DRC groups were shown to inhibit goblet cell destruction and decrease cell infiltration in histology. Similarly, they were also found to improve intestinal epithelial barrier and mucosal protection and inflammation-related factors at the gene and protein expression level. Yan et al. (2019) reported that the family unclassified Enterobacteriaceae had a positive correlation with pro-inflammatory cytokines and a negative correlation with TJ proteins and MUC-2 [55]. Likewise, the administration of KC and DRC appeared to reduce Enterobacteriaceae, consequently maintaining anti-inflammatory and mucosal barrier activities via reduced TNF-α expression and release, and enhanced TJ protein and MUC-2 expression. In particular, KC showed a tendency to decrease Enterobacteriaceae more than did DRC. Kimchi has been documented to be rich in dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals, as well as probiotics, and these ingredients were associated with reduced levels of harmful bacteria [9,13]. It has also been reported that dietary fiber can produce short-chain fatty acids by fermenting symbiotic bacteria. Short-chain fatty acids are known to lower intestinal pH by suppressing the proliferation of harmful bacteria, maintaining mucosal barrier function, and controlling immune function by using them as an energy source for all epithelial cells [13]. Dietary fiber in kimchi is also thought to be involved in intestinal barrier function and immune regulation, so further research on this is needed. Moreover, kimchi contains not only DRC but also various LABs [15]. A study of the probiotics-alone intake group and four kinds of mixed probiotics (Lim. reuteri, Ba. coagulans, B. longum, C. butyricum) showed that mixed probiotics were more effective in alleviating colitis [46]. It is expected that the synergistic effect of various LABs in kimchi used in this study will also affect the alleviation of colitis. Therefore, further studies are needed to investigate the effects of other components in kimchi, such as dietary fiber and mixed lactic acid bacteria, on colitis.

5. Conclusions

The anti-inflammatory and beneficial effects on the intestinal mucosal function of kimchi and DRC isolated from kimchi were confirmed when colitis was induced with DSS. KC and DRC groups downregulated the expression of genes and proteins related to pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) and inductive enzymes including COX-2 and iNOS. KC and DRC were found to reduce NF-κB activity and affect the expression of inflammatory cytokines downstream. In particular, KC increased the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) in the colon. KC and DRC have been shown to alleviate damage to the intestinal mucosal barrier by raising the expression of TJ proteins and mucin-producing genes that maintain the intestinal barrier through the reduction of inflammatory responses and intestinal harmful bacteria. Therefore, it was suggested that kimchi, as well as DRC, the LAB isolated from kimchi, is expected to have the potential to restore colitis.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods12030584/s1, Figure S1: Changes in food intake during the experiment periods. Table S1: Primer list used for quantitative real-time PCR. Table S2: Antibodies list used for Western blotting.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.-H.O. and Y.-S.C.; methodology, H.-J.M.; validation, H.-J.M. and S.-H.O.; formal analysis, H.-J.M.; investigation, H.-J.M.; resources, K.-B.P. and Y.-S.C.; data curation, H.-J.M.; writing—original draft preparation, H.-J.M.; writing—review and editing, H.-J.M., S.-H.O. and Y.-S.C.; visualization, H.-J.M.; supervision, S.-H.O. and Y.-S.C.; project administration, S.-H.O. and Y.-S.C.; funding acquisition, S.-H.O., K.-B.P. and Y.-S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Daesang Corporation.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The animal study protocol was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of Jeonbuk National University (approval number JBNU 2021-02) and was conducted according to the committee’s animal experiment guidelines.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article or supplementary material.

Conflicts of Interest

The author Ki-Bum Park was employed by the company Daesang Corporation. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors declare that this study received funding from Daesang Corporation. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article, or the decision to submit it for publication.

References

  1. Ananthakrishnan, A.N.; Kaplan, G.G.; Ng, S.C. Changing global epidemiology of inflammatory bowel diseases: Sustaining health care delivery into the 21st century. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2020, 18, 1252–1260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Mak, W.Y.; Zhao, M.; Ng, S.C.; Burisch, J. The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: East meets west. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2020, 35, 380–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Ramos, G.P.; Papadakis, K.A. Mechanisms of disease: Inflammatory bowel diseases. Mayo Clinic Proc. 2019, 94, 155–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Reddavide, R.; Rotolo, O.; Caruso, M.G.; Stasi, E.; Notarnicola, M.; Miraglia, C.; Nouvenne, A.; Meschi, T.; De’Angelis, G.L.; Di Mario, F.; et al. The role of diet in the prevention and treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases. Acta Biomed. 2018, 89, 60–75. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  5. Park, S.H.; Kim, Y.J.; Rhee, K.H.; Kim, Y.H.; Hong, S.N.; Kim, K.H.; Seo, S.I.; Cha, J.M.; Park, S.Y.; Jeong, S.K.; et al. A 30-year trend analysis in the epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in the songpa-kangdong district of seoul, korea in 1986–2015. J. Crohns. Colitis 2019, 13, 1410–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Tripathi, K.; Feuerstein, J.D. New developments in ulcerative colitis: Latest evidence on management, treatment, and maintenance. Drugs. Context 2019, 8, 212572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Wehkamp, J.; Stange, E.F. Recent advances and emerging therapies in the non-surgical management of ulcerative colitis. F1000Res. 2018, 7, 1207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Zeng, W.; He, D.; Xing, Y.; Liu, J.; Su, N.; Zhang, C.; Wang, Y.; Xing, X. Internal connections between dietary intake and gut microbiota homeostasis in disease progression of ulcerative colitis: A review. Food Sci. Hum. Wellness 2021, 10, 119–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Keshteli, A.H.; Madsen, K.L.; Dieleman, L.A. Diet in the pathogenesis and management of ulcerative colitis; a review of randomized controlled dietary interventions. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Khan, I.; Ullah, N.; Zha, L.; Bai, Y.; Khan, A.; Zhao, T.; Che, T.; Zhang, C. Alteration of gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease (ibd): Cause or consequence? Ibd treatment targeting the gut microbiome. Pathogens 2019, 8, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Yousefi, B.; Eslami, M.; Ghasemian, A.; Kokhaei, P.; Salek Farrokhi, A.; Darabi, N. Probiotics importance and their immunomodulatory properties. J. Cell Physiol. 2019, 234, 8008–8018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Jung, J.Y.; Lee, S.H.; Jeon, C.O. Kimchi microflora: History, current status, and perspectives for industrial kimchi production. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2014, 98, 2385–2393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Park, K.Y.; Jeong, J.K.; Lee, Y.E.; Daily, J.W., 3rd. Health benefits of kimchi (korean fermented vegetables) as a probiotic food. J. Med. Food 2014, 17, 6–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Jeong, S.H.; Lee, H.J.; Jung, J.Y.; Lee, S.H.; Seo, H.Y.; Park, W.S.; Jeon, C.O. Effects of red pepper powder on microbial communities and metabolites during kimchi fermentation. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 160, 252–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Jung, J.Y.; Lee, S.H.; Kim, J.M.; Park, M.S.; Bae, J.W.; Hahn, Y.; Madsen, E.L.; Jeon, C.O. Metagenomic analysis of kimchi, a traditional korean fermented food. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2011, 77, 2264–2274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Jung, J.Y.; Lee, S.H.; Lee, H.J.; Seo, H.Y.; Park, W.S.; Jeon, C.O. Effects of Leuconostoc mesenteroides starter cultures on microbial communities and metabolites during kimchi fermentation. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2012, 153, 378–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Park, E.J.; Chun, J.; Cha, C.J.; Park, W.S.; Jeon, C.O.; Bae, J.W. Bacterial community analysis during fermentation of ten representative kinds of kimchi with barcoded pyrosequencing. Food Microbiol. 2012, 30, 197–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Park, S.E.; Seo, S.H.; Kim, E.J.; Byun, S.; Na, C.S.; Son, H.S. Changes of microbial community and metabolite in kimchi inoculated with different microbial community starters. Food Chem. 2019, 274, 558–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Song, H.S.; Whon, T.W.; Kim, J.; Lee, S.H.; Kim, J.Y.; Kim, Y.B.; Choi, H.J.; Rhee, J.K.; Roh, S.W. Microbial niches in raw ingredients determine microbial community assembly during kimchi fermentation. Food Chem. 2020, 318, 126481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Jeon, H.H.; Kim, K.H.; Chun, B.H.; Ryu, B.H.; Han, N.S.; Jeon, C.O. A proposal of Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. jonggajibkimchii subsp. Nov. and reclassification of Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. suionicum (gu et al., 2012) as Leuconostoc suionicum sp. nov. based on complete genome sequences. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 2017, 67, 2225–2230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Moon, S.H.; Kim, C.R.; Chang, H.C. Heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria as a starter culture to control kimchi fermentation. Lwt 2018, 88, 181–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Heo, W.; Lee, E.S.; Cho, H.T.; Kim, J.H.; Lee, J.H.; Yoon, S.M.; Kwon, H.T.; Yang, S.; Kim, Y.J. Lactobacillus plantarum LRCC 5273 isolated from kimchi ameliorates diet-induced hypercholesterolemia in c57bl/6 mice. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2018, 82, 1964–1972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  23. Kang, H.; Moon, J.S.; Lee, M.-G.; Han, N.S. Immunomodulatory effects of Leuconostoc citreum EFELl2061 isolated from kimchi, a traditional korean food, on the th2 type-dominant immune response in vitro and in vivo. J. Funct. Foods 2016, 20, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kwon, M.-S.; Shin, M.-Y.; Lim, S.K.; Lee, J.; Park, H.K.; Kim, N.; Yun, M.; Jo, H.E.; Oh, Y.J.; Choi, H.-J. Leuconostoc citreum isolated from kimchi suppresses the development of collagen-induced arthritis in dba/1 mice. J. Funct. Foods 2019, 63, 103579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Park, J.E.; Oh, S.H.; Cha, Y.S. Lactobacillus brevis OPK-3 from kimchi prevents obesity and modulates the expression of adipogenic and pro-inflammatory genes in adipose tissue of diet-induced obese mice. Nutrients 2020, 12, 604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Yu, H.S.; Lee, N.K.; Choi, A.J.; Choe, J.S.; Bae, C.H.; Paik, H.D. Anti-inflammatory potential of probiotic strain Weissella cibaria JW15 isolated from kimchi through regulation of nf-kappab and mapks pathways in lps-induced raw 264.7 cells. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2019, 29, 1022–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Jang, S.E.; Hyam, S.R.; Han, M.J.; Kim, S.Y.; Lee, B.G.; Kim, D.H. Lactobacillus brevis G-101 ameliorates colitis in mice by inhibiting nf-kappab, mapk and Akt pathways and by polarizing m1 macrophages to m2-like macrophages. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2013, 115, 888–896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Jo, S.G.; Noh, E.J.; Lee, J.Y.; Kim, G.; Choi, J.H.; Lee, M.E.; Song, J.H.; Chang, J.Y.; Park, J.H. Lactobacillus curvatus WiKim38 isolated from kimchi induces il-10 production in dendritic cells and alleviates dss-induced colitis in mice. J. Microbiol. 2016, 54, 503–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Park, J.S.; Joe, I.; Rhee, P.D.; Jeong, C.S.; Jeong, G. A lactic acid bacterium isolated from kimchi ameliorates intestinal inflammation in dss-induced colitis. J. Microbiol. 2017, 55, 304–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Choi, H.Y.; Ryu, B.H.; Kim, D.H. Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC1506 and Use Thereof. Korean Patent 101809447, 11 December 2017. [Google Scholar]
  31. Mennigen, R.; Nolte, K.; Rijcken, E.; Utech, M.; Loeffler, B.; Senninger, N.; Bruewer, M. Probiotic mixture vsl#3 protects the epithelial barrier by maintaining tight junction protein expression and preventing apoptosis in a murine model of colitis. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2009, 296, G1140–G1149. [Google Scholar]
  32. Kim, K.A.; Gu, W.; Lee, I.A.; Joh, E.H.; Kim, D.H. High fat diet-induced gut microbiota exacerbates inflammation and obesity in mice via the tlr4 signaling pathway. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e47713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Dimidi, E.; Cox, S.R.; Rossi, M.; Whelan, K. Fermented foods: Definitions and characteristics, impact on the gut microbiota and effects on gastrointestinal health and disease. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Islam, J.; Koseki, T.; Watanabe, K.; Ardiansyah; Budijanto, S.; Oikawa, A.; Alauddin, M.; Goto, T.; Aso, H.; Komai, M.; et al. Dietary supplementation of fermented rice bran effectively alleviates dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice. Nutrients 2017, 9, 747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Jang, S.-H.; Park, J.; Kim, S.-H.; Choi, K.-M.; Ko, E.-S.; Cha, J.-D.; Lee, Y.-R.; Jang, H.; Jang, Y.-S. Oral administration of red ginseng powder fermented with probiotic alleviates the severity of dextran-sulfate sodium-induced colitis in a mouse model. Chin. J. Nat. Med. 2017, 15, 192–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Liu, Y.; Fang, H.; Liu, H.; Cheng, H.; Pan, L.; Hu, M.; Li, X. Goji berry juice fermented by probiotics attenuates dextran sodium sulfate-induced ulcerative colitis in mice. J. Funct. Foods 2021, 83, 104491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Okada, Y.; Tsuzuki, Y.; Takeshi, T.; Furuhashi, H.; Higashiyama, M.; Watanabe, C.; Shirakabe, K.; Kurihara, C.; Komoto, S.; Tomita, K.; et al. Novel probiotics isolated from a japanese traditional fermented food, funazushi, attenuates dss-induced colitis by increasing the induction of high integrin alphav/beta8-expressing dendritic cells. J. Gastroenterol. 2018, 53, 407–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Lee, H.; Yoon, H.; Ji, Y.; Kim, H.; Park, H.; Lee, J.; Shin, H.; Holzapfel, W. Functional properties of Lactobacillus strains isolated from kimchi. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2011, 145, 155–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Lee, K.W.; Shim, J.M.; Park, S.-K.; Heo, H.-J.; Kim, H.-J.; Ham, K.-S.; Kim, J.H. Isolation of lactic acid bacteria with probiotic potentials from kimchi, traditional korean fermented vegetable. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 71, 130–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Yang, S.J.; Lee, J.E.; Lim, S.M.; Kim, Y.J.; Lee, N.K.; Paik, H.D. Antioxidant and immune-enhancing effects of probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum 200655 isolated from kimchi. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2019, 28, 491–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Eichele, D.D.; Kharbanda, K.K. Dextran sodium sulfate colitis murine model: An indispensable tool for advancing our understanding of inflammatory bowel diseases pathogenesis. World J. Gastroenterol. 2017, 23, 6016–6029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Rodriguez-Nogales, A.; Algieri, F.; Garrido-Mesa, J.; Vezza, T.; Utrilla, M.P.; Chueca, N.; Garcia, F.; Rodriguez-Cabezas, M.E.; Galvez, J. Intestinal anti-inflammatory effect of the probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii in dss-induced colitis in mice: Impact on micrornas expression and gut microbiota composition. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2018, 61, 129–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Xia, Y.; Chen, Y.; Wang, G.; Yang, Y.; Song, X.; Xiong, Z.; Zhang, H.; Lai, P.; Wang, S.; Ai, L. Lactobacillus plantarum AR113 alleviates dss-induced colitis by regulating the tlr4/myd88/nf-κb pathway and gut microbiota composition. J. Funct. Foods 2020, 67, 103854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Seo, K.; Seo, J.; Yeun, J.; Choi, H.; Kim, Y.I.; Chang, S.Y. The role of mucosal barriers in human gut health. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2021, 44, 325–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Rabah, H.; do Carmo, F.L.R.; Carvalho, R.D.O.; Cordeiro, B.F.; da Silva, S.H.; Oliveira, E.R.; Lemos, L.; Cara, D.C.; Faria, A.M.C.; Garric, G.; et al. Beneficial propionibacteria within a probiotic emmental cheese: Impact on dextran sodium sulphate-induced colitis in mice. Microorganisms 2020, 8, 380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Wang, Y.; Xie, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Ma, W.; Ning, K.; Xiang, J.Y.; Cui, J.; Xiang, H. Combination of probiotics with different functions alleviate dss-induced colitis by regulating intestinal microbiota, il-10, and barrier function. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2020, 104, 335–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Baldelli, V.; Scaldaferri, F.; Putignani, L.; Del Chierico, F. The role of Enterobacteriaceae in gut microbiota dysbiosis in inflammatory bowel diseases. Microorganisms 2021, 9, 697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Zhou, X.; Lu, Q.; Kang, X.; Tian, G.; Ming, D.; Yang, J. Protective role of a new polysaccharide extracted from Lonicera japonica Thunb in mice with ulcerative colitis induced by dextran sulphate sodium. Biomed Res. Int. 2021, 2021, 8878633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Peran, L.; Camuesco, D.; Comalada, M.; Bailon, E.; Henriksson, A.; Xaus, J.; Zarzuelo, A.; Galvez, J. A comparative study of the preventative effects exerted by three probiotics, Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus acidophilus, in the tnbs model of rat colitis. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2007, 103, 836–844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Liu, M.; Ding, J.; Zhang, H.; Shen, J.; Hao, Y.; Zhang, X.; Qi, W.; Luo, X.; Zhang, T.; Wang, N. Lactobacillus casei LH23 modulates the immune response and ameliorates dss-induced colitis via suppressing jnk/p-38 signal pathways and enhancing histone h3k9 acetylation. Food Funct. 2020, 11, 5473–5485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Tak, P.P.; Firestein, G.S. Nf-kappab: A key role in inflammatory diseases. J. Clin. Investig. 2001, 107, 7–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Hanada, T.; Yoshimura, A. Regulation of cytokine signaling and inflammation. Cytokine. Growth Factor Rev. 2002, 13, 413–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Kim, Y.S.; Ho, S.B. Intestinal goblet cells and mucins in health and disease: Recent insights and progress. Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep. 2010, 12, 319–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Seo, S.; Shin, J.-S.; Lee, W.-S.; Rhee, Y.K.; Cho, C.-W.; Hong, H.-D.; Lee, K.-T. Anti-colitis effect of Lactobacillus sakei K040706 via suppression of inflammatory responses in the dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis mice model. J. Funct. Foods 2017, 29, 256–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Yan, S.; Yang, B.; Zhao, J.; Zhao, J.; Stanton, C.; Ross, R.P.; Zhang, H.; Chen, W. A ropy exopolysaccharide producing strain Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum YS108R alleviates dss-induced colitis by maintenance of the mucosal barrier and gut microbiota modulation. Food Funct. 2019, 10, 1595–1608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Foods 12 00584 g001 550
Figure 1. Experimental scheme showing the treatment period of DSS and samples. Samples were treated for 21 days. Except for the ND group, all other groups were given 3% DSS of drinking water starting on the 7th day after the study began. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Figure 1. Experimental scheme showing the treatment period of DSS and samples. Samples were treated for 21 days. Except for the ND group, all other groups were given 3% DSS of drinking water starting on the 7th day after the study began. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Foods 12 00584 g001
Foods 12 00584 g002 550
Figure 2. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on changes of body weight (A) and disease activity index (DAI) (B) during DSS treatment. (A) The body weight was measured daily at the same time as the start of the experiment, and (B) DAI was evaluated every day after starting DSS drinking. Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Figure 2. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on changes of body weight (A) and disease activity index (DAI) (B) during DSS treatment. (A) The body weight was measured daily at the same time as the start of the experiment, and (B) DAI was evaluated every day after starting DSS drinking. Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Foods 12 00584 g002
Foods 12 00584 g003 550
Figure 3. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on colon length (A,B), colon weight/length (C), and histopathology (D). (A) Representative photographs of colon tissue in each group. (B,C) The colon length and colon weight-to-length ratio are presented as scatter plots with median, minimum and maximum values (n = 8 mice per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. (D) Representative images of H&E staining of colonic sections in each group. Three histological sections were analyzed per animal, with n = 3 mice per group. Arrows represent the following histological lesions: crypt destruction (black), reduced goblet cells (blue), inflammatory cell infiltration (yellow), and colonic mucosal erosion (red). Scale bar = 100 μm and 200 μm. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Figure 3. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on colon length (A,B), colon weight/length (C), and histopathology (D). (A) Representative photographs of colon tissue in each group. (B,C) The colon length and colon weight-to-length ratio are presented as scatter plots with median, minimum and maximum values (n = 8 mice per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. (D) Representative images of H&E staining of colonic sections in each group. Three histological sections were analyzed per animal, with n = 3 mice per group. Arrows represent the following histological lesions: crypt destruction (black), reduced goblet cells (blue), inflammatory cell infiltration (yellow), and colonic mucosal erosion (red). Scale bar = 100 μm and 200 μm. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Foods 12 00584 g003
Foods 12 00584 g004 550
Figure 4. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in serum (A) and colon tissue (B). Data values are expressed as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 5–8 per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Figure 4. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in serum (A) and colon tissue (B). Data values are expressed as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 5–8 per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Foods 12 00584 g004
Foods 12 00584 g005 550
Figure 5. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on the expression of mRNA (A) and protein (B,C) related to the pro-inflammatory factors in colon tissue. (A) The relative mRNA expression of the target genes was quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as the control. Data values are expressed as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 6–8 per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. (B) Representative image by Western blot. (C) The relative expression level of protein was quantified by Image J. The relative expression levels of protein were quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as the control. Values were presented as bar graphs with means ± SD (n = 6 per group). Comparisons among groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. The presented data were from one representative experiment out of three. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Figure 5. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on the expression of mRNA (A) and protein (B,C) related to the pro-inflammatory factors in colon tissue. (A) The relative mRNA expression of the target genes was quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as the control. Data values are expressed as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 6–8 per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. (B) Representative image by Western blot. (C) The relative expression level of protein was quantified by Image J. The relative expression levels of protein were quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as the control. Values were presented as bar graphs with means ± SD (n = 6 per group). Comparisons among groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. The presented data were from one representative experiment out of three. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Foods 12 00584 g005
Foods 12 00584 g006 550
Figure 6. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on the expression of mRNA (A) and protein (B,C) of tight junction protein and mucin. (A) The relative mRNA expression of the target genes was quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes, with the ND group as the control. Data values are expressed as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 6–8 per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. (B) Representative image by Western blot. (C) The relative expression level of protein was quantified by Image J. The relative expression levels of protein were quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as the control. Values were presented as bar graphs with means ± SD (n = 6 per group). Comparisons among groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. The presented data were from one representative experiment out of three. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Figure 6. Effects of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on the expression of mRNA (A) and protein (B,C) of tight junction protein and mucin. (A) The relative mRNA expression of the target genes was quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes, with the ND group as the control. Data values are expressed as scatter plots with median, minimum, and maximum values (n = 6–8 per group). Comparisons among groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. (B) Representative image by Western blot. (C) The relative expression level of protein was quantified by Image J. The relative expression levels of protein were quantified and normalized by β-actin. The value was expressed as fold changes with the ND group as the control. Values were presented as bar graphs with means ± SD (n = 6 per group). Comparisons among groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. The presented data were from one representative experiment out of three. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Foods 12 00584 g006
Table
Table 1. Effect of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on some gut microbial counts.
Table 1. Effect of kimchi and Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 on some gut microbial counts.
Bifidobacteria
(log CFU/g)		Lactobacillus
(log CFU/g)		Enterobacteriaceae
(log CFU/g)
ND7.65 ± 0.12 b6.60 ± 0.76 b2.85 ± 2.47 b
DSS9.64 ± 0.25 a8.77 ± 0.28 a7.32 ± 0.19 a
KC9.83 ± 0.18 a8.99 ± 0.32 a3.91 ± 1.14 b
DRC9.50 ± 0.61 a8.68 ± 1.52 a5.38 ± 0.73 ab
Data are expressed as the means ± SD (n = 4 per group). Comparisons among groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s post hoc test. Groups with different letters had a significant difference at p < 0.05. ND, normal group; DSS, DSS-treated group; KC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of kimchi group; DRC, DSS + 1 × 109 CFU/day/mouse of Leu. mesenteroides DRC 1506 isolated from kimchi.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Moon, H.-J.; Oh, S.-H.; Park, K.-B.; Cha, Y.-S. Kimchi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis via Attenuating Inflammatory Responses. Foods 2023, 12, 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030584

AMA Style

Moon H-J, Oh S-H, Park K-B, Cha Y-S. Kimchi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis via Attenuating Inflammatory Responses. Foods. 2023; 12(3):584. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030584

Chicago/Turabian Style

Moon, Hye-Jung, Suk-Heung Oh, Ki-Bum Park, and Youn-Soo Cha. 2023. "Kimchi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis via Attenuating Inflammatory Responses" Foods 12, no. 3: 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030584

APA Style

Moon, H. -J., Oh, S. -H., Park, K. -B., & Cha, Y. -S. (2023). Kimchi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis via Attenuating Inflammatory Responses. Foods, 12(3), 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030584

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop