Journal of Fungi

17 pages, 2333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Pathogenicity-Related Effector Proteins and the Role of Piwsc1 in the Virulence of Penicillium italicum on Citrus Fruits

by Xiaoying Li, Shuzhen Yang, Meihong Zhang, Yanting Yang and Litao Peng

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060646 - 20 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2900

Abstract

Blue mold caused by Penicillium italicum is one of the two major postharvest diseases of citrus fruits. The interactions of pathogens with their hosts are complicated, and virulence factors that mediate pathogenicity have not yet been identified. In present study, a prediction pipeline [...] Read more.

Blue mold caused by Penicillium italicum is one of the two major postharvest diseases of citrus fruits. The interactions of pathogens with their hosts are complicated, and virulence factors that mediate pathogenicity have not yet been identified. In present study, a prediction pipeline approach based on bioinformatics and transcriptomic data is designed to determine the effector proteins of P. italicum. Three hundred and seventy-five secreted proteins of P. italicum were identified, many of which (29.07%) were enzymes for carbohydrate utilization. Twenty-nine candidates were further analyzed and the expression patterns of 12 randomly selected candidate effector genes were monitored during the early stages of growth on PDA and infection of Navel oranges for validation. Functional analysis of a cell wall integrity-related gene Piwsc1, a core candidate, was performed by gene knockout. The deletion of Piwsc1 resulted in reduced virulence on citrus fruits, as presented by an approximate 57% reduction in the diameter of lesions. In addition, the mycelial growth rate, spore germination rate, and sporulation of ΔPiwsc1 decreased. The findings provide us with new insights to understand the pathogenesis of P. italicum and develop an effective and sustainable control method for blue mold. Full article

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17 pages, 3106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Purification and Characterization of a Novel α-L-Rhamnosidase from Papiliotrema laurentii ZJU-L07 and Its Application in Production of Icariin from Epimedin C

by Hanghang Lou, Xiayu Liu, Siyu Liu and Qihe Chen

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060644 - 20 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2207

Abstract

Icariin is the most effective bioactive compound in Herba Epimedii. To enhance the content of icariin in the epimedium water extract, a novel strain, Papiliotrema laurentii ZJU-L07, producing an intracellular α-L-rhamnosidase was isolated from the soil and mutagenized. The specific activity of α-L-rhamnosidase [...] Read more.

Icariin is the most effective bioactive compound in Herba Epimedii. To enhance the content of icariin in the epimedium water extract, a novel strain, Papiliotrema laurentii ZJU-L07, producing an intracellular α-L-rhamnosidase was isolated from the soil and mutagenized. The specific activity of α-L-rhamnosidase was 29.89 U·mg⁻¹ through purification, and the molecular mass of the enzyme was 100 kDa, as assayed by SDS-PAGE. The characterization of the purified enzyme was determined. The optimal temperature and pH were 55 °C and 7.0, respectively. The enzyme was stable in the pH range 5.5–9.0 for 2 h over 80% and the temperature range 30–40 °C for 2 h more than 70%. The enzyme activity was inhibited by Ca²⁺, Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺, and Mg²⁺, especially Fe²⁺. The kinetic parameters of K_m and V_max were 1.38 mM and 24.64 μmol·mg⁻¹·min⁻¹ using pNPR as the substrate, respectively. When epimedin C was used as a nature substrate to determine the kinetic parameters of α-L-rhamnosidase, the values of K_m and V_max were 3.28 mM and 0.01 μmol·mg⁻¹·min⁻¹, respectively. The conditions of enzymatic hydrolysis were optimized through single factor experiments and response surface methodology. The icariin yield increased from 61% to over 83% after optimization. The enzymatic hydrolysis method could be used for the industrialized production of icariin. At the same time, this enzyme could also cleave the α-1,2 glycosidic linkage between glucoside and rhamnoside in naringin and neohesperidin, which could be applicable in other biotechnological processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Discovery and Biosynthesis of Fungal Natural Products)

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Graphical abstract

9 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells Accumulate in the Lungs during Murine Pneumocystis Infection but Are Not Required for Clearance

by Lisa R. Bishop, Shelly J. Curran and Joseph A. Kovacs

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060645 - 18 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2790

Abstract

Pneumocystis is a fungal pathogen that can cause pneumonia in immunosuppressed hosts and subclinical infection in immunocompetent hosts. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are unconventional lymphocytes with a semi-invariant T-cell receptor that are activated by riboflavin metabolites that are presented by the MHC-1b [...] Read more.

Pneumocystis is a fungal pathogen that can cause pneumonia in immunosuppressed hosts and subclinical infection in immunocompetent hosts. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are unconventional lymphocytes with a semi-invariant T-cell receptor that are activated by riboflavin metabolites that are presented by the MHC-1b molecule MR1. Although Pneumocystis can presumably synthesize riboflavin metabolites based on whole-genome studies, the role of MAIT cells in controlling Pneumocystis infection is unknown. We used a co-housing mouse model of Pneumocystis infection, combined with flow cytometry and qPCR, to characterize the response of MAIT cells to infection in C57BL/6 mice, and, using MR1^−/− mice, which lack MAIT cells, to examine their role in clearing the infection. MAIT cells accumulated in the lungs of C57BL/6 mice during Pneumocystis infection and remained at increased levels for many weeks after clearance of infection. In MR1^−/− mice, Pneumocystis infection was cleared with kinetics similar to C57BL/6 mice. Thus, MAIT cells are not necessary for control of Pneumocystis infection, but the prolonged retention of these cells in the lungs following clearance of infection may allow a more rapid future response to other pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women in Mycology)

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26 pages, 5565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Phylogenetic Analyses Reveal Five New Species in Chaetosphaeriaceae

by Jing-Yi Zhang, Jian Ma, Yuan-Pin Xiao, Saranyaphat Boonmee, Ji-Chuan Kang and Yong-Zhong Lu

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060643 - 17 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

Chaetosphaeriaceae is a genera-rich and highly diverse group of fungi with a worldwide distribution in terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Eight fresh collections of Chaetosphaeriaceae were obtained during investigations of hyaline-spored hyphomycetes in China and Thailand. Based on morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of [...] Read more.

Chaetosphaeriaceae is a genera-rich and highly diverse group of fungi with a worldwide distribution in terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Eight fresh collections of Chaetosphaeriaceae were obtained during investigations of hyaline-spored hyphomycetes in China and Thailand. Based on morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of a combined LSU and ITS sequence dataset, Chaetosphaeria obovoidea, Codinaea aseptata, Codinaeella hyalina, Dictyochaeta guizhouensis and Paragaeumannomyces guttulatus were introduced as new species, Codinaea terminalis was reported as new host record, and Codinaea dwaya and Phialosporostilbe scutiformis were introduced as new collections. Phylogenetic analysis in this study revealed that Chaetosphaeria was polyphyletic. Detailed descriptions and illustrations of new taxa and identified species are provided, as well as an updated phylogenetic tree to confirm the placements of these eight new collections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polyphasic Identification of Fungi)

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12 pages, 5007 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Antidepressant Sertraline Induces the Formation of Supersized Lipid Droplets in the Human Pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

by Matthew R. Breuer, Ananya Dasgupta, Joseph G. Vasselli, Xiaorong Lin, Brian D. Shaw and Matthew S. Sachs

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060642 - 17 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

The prevalence and increasing incidence of fungal infections globally is a significant worldwide health problem. Cryptococcosis, primarily caused by the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, is responsible for approximately 181,000 estimated deaths annually. The scarcity of treatments and the increasing resistance to current [...] Read more.

The prevalence and increasing incidence of fungal infections globally is a significant worldwide health problem. Cryptococcosis, primarily caused by the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, is responsible for approximately 181,000 estimated deaths annually. The scarcity of treatments and the increasing resistance to current therapeutics highlight the need for the development of antifungal agents which have novel mechanisms of action and are suitable for clinical use. Repurposing existing FDA-approved compounds as antimycotic therapeutics is a promising strategy for the rapid development of such new treatments. Sertraline (SRT), a commonly prescribed antidepressant, is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent with particular efficacy against C. neoformans. However, the effect of SRT on fungal physiology is not understood. Here, we report that SRT induces the formation of supersized lipid droplets (SLDs) in C. neoformans, and in Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Aspergillus fumigatus. SLDs were not induced in C. neoformans by treatment with the antifungal fluconazole (FLC), consistent with SRT and FLC acting differently to perturb C. neoformans physiology. The formation of SLDs in response to SRT indicates that this compound alters the lipid metabolism of C. neoformans. Moreover, the SRT-induced enlargement of LDs in other fungal species may indicate a common fungal response to SRT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryptococcus and Cryptococcosis 2.0)

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10 pages, 240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endogenous Fungal Endophthalmitis: Causative Organisms, Treatments, and Visual Outcomes

by Kuan-Jen Chen, Ming-Hui Sun, Yen-Po Chen, Yi-Hsing Chen, Nan-Kai Wang, Laura Liu, An-Ning Chao, Wei-Chi Wu, Yih-Shiou Hwang and Chi-Chun Lai

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060641 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2500

Abstract

Endogenous fungal endophthalmitis (EFE) is a vision-threatening intraocular infection and a rare complication of fungemia. Early diagnosis and prompt aggressive treatment are crucial to avoid vision loss. We retrospectively reviewed the data of 37 patients (49 eyes) with EFE who were treated at [...] Read more.

Endogenous fungal endophthalmitis (EFE) is a vision-threatening intraocular infection and a rare complication of fungemia. Early diagnosis and prompt aggressive treatment are crucial to avoid vision loss. We retrospectively reviewed the data of 37 patients (49 eyes) with EFE who were treated at a tertiary referral hospital from January 2000 to April 2019. The most common risk factor was diabetes (24 patients; 65%), followed by recent hospitalization, urinary tract disease, liver disease, and immunosuppressive therapy. Two or more risk factors were detected in 24 patients (65%), and yeasts (29 patients; 78%) were more commonly detected than mold (8 patients; 22%). The most common fungal isolates were Candida spp. (78%), especially Candida albicans (70%). Moreover, 24 eyes in 21 patients underwent vitrectomy, and 2 eyes underwent evisceration. Retinal detachment (RD) occurred in 17 eyes (35%) in 14 patients, and eyes without RD exhibited significantly superior visual outcomes (p = 0.001). A comparison of the initial VA between the better (20/200 or better) and worse groups (worse than 20/200) revealed that better initial VA was related to a superior visual outcome (p = 0.003). Therefore, to achieve superior visual outcomes, early diagnosis and prompt treatment are necessary for patients with EFE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Eye Infections)

14 pages, 1816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Soil Organic Carbon Fractions and Fungal Communities, Subsequent to Different Management Practices in Moso Bamboo Plantations

by Xiaoping Zhang, Qiaoling Li, Zheke Zhong, Zhiyuan Huang, Fangyuan Bian, Chuanbao Yang and Xing Wen

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060640 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2554

Abstract

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) has an extremely fast growth rate and major carbon sequestration potential. However, little information is available on the dynamics of soil C accumulation and fungi communities related to different management practices. Here, we investigated changes in the [...] Read more.

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) has an extremely fast growth rate and major carbon sequestration potential. However, little information is available on the dynamics of soil C accumulation and fungi communities related to different management practices. Here, we investigated changes in the soil organic carbon (SOC) fractions and fungal communities of a Moso bamboo plantation under three different management practices (M0: undisturbed; M1: extensively managed; and M2: intensively managed). Compared with M0, SOC levels were reduced by 41.2% and 71.5% in M1 and M2, respectively; furthermore, four SOC fractions (C1: very labile; C2: labile; C3: less labile; and C4: nonlabile) and the carbon management index (CMI) were also significantly reduced by plantation management. These practices further altered fungal communities, for example, by increasing Basidiomycota and Mortierellomycota, and by decreasing Ascomycota and Rozellomycota. Pyrenochaeta, Mortierella, Saitozyma, and Cladophialophora were identified as keystone taxa. Soil fungal communities were significantly related to the pH, NH₄-N, AP, C3, and the C4 fractions of SOC. Random forest modeling identified soil C3 and Mortierella as the most important predictors of the CMI. Our results suggest that reducing human interference would be beneficial for fungal community improvement and C sequestration in Moso bamboo plantations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Ecological Interactions of Fungi)

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22 pages, 5306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyphenol-Capped Biogenic Synthesis of Noble Metallic Silver Nanoparticles for Antifungal Activity against Candida auris

by Maqsood Ahmad Malik, Maha G. Batterjee, Majid Rasool Kamli, Khalid Ahmed Alzahrani, Ekram Y. Danish and Arshid Nabi

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060639 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3790

Abstract

In terms of reduced toxicity, the biologically inspired green synthesis of nanoparticles has emerged as a promising alternative to chemically fabricated nanoparticles. The use of a highly stable, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly aqueous extract of Cynara cardunculus as a reducing and capping agent [...] Read more.

In terms of reduced toxicity, the biologically inspired green synthesis of nanoparticles has emerged as a promising alternative to chemically fabricated nanoparticles. The use of a highly stable, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly aqueous extract of Cynara cardunculus as a reducing and capping agent in this study demonstrated the possibility of green manufacturing of silver nanoparticles (CC-AgNPs). UV–visible spectroscopy validated the development of CC-AgNPs, indicating the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) λ_max band at 438 nm. The band gap of CC-AgNPs was found to be 2.26 eV. SEM and TEM analysis examined the surface morphology of CC-AgNPs, and micrographs revealed that the nanoparticles were spherical. The crystallinity, crystallite size, and phase purity of as-prepared nanoparticles were confirmed using XRD analysis, and it was confirmed that the CC-AgNPs were a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystalline-structured material. Furthermore, the role of active functional groups involved in the reduction and surface capping of CC-AgNPs was revealed using the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic technique. CC-AgNPs were mostly spherical and monodispersed, with an average size of 26.89 nm, and were shown to be stable for a longer period without any noticeable change at room temperature. Further, we checked the antifungal mechanism of CC-AgNPs against C. auris MRL6057. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFC) were 50.0 µg/mL and 100.0 µg/mL respectively. The cell count and viability assay confirmed the fungicidal potential of CC-AgNPs. Further, the analysis showed that CC-AgNPs could induce apoptosis and G2/M phase cell cycle arrest in C. auris MRL6057. Our results also suggest that the CC-AgNPs were responsible for the induction of mitochondrial toxicity. TUNEL assay results revealed that higher concentrations of CC-AgNPs could cause DNA fragmentation. Therefore, the present study suggested that CC-AgNPs hold the capacity for antifungal drug development against C. auris infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Nanotechnology 2.0)

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16 pages, 3162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SfgA Renders Aspergillus flavus More Stable to the External Environment

by Xiao-Yu Yuan, Jie-Ying Li, Qing-Qing Zhi, Sheng-Da Chi, Su Qu, Yan-Feng Luo and Zhu-Mei He

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060638 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2490

Abstract

sfgA is known as a key negative transcriptional regulator gene of asexual sporulation and sterigmatocystin production in Aspergillus nidulans. However, here, we found that the homolog sfgA gene shows a broad and complex regulatory role in governing growth, conidiation, sclerotia formation, secondary [...] Read more.

sfgA is known as a key negative transcriptional regulator gene of asexual sporulation and sterigmatocystin production in Aspergillus nidulans. However, here, we found that the homolog sfgA gene shows a broad and complex regulatory role in governing growth, conidiation, sclerotia formation, secondary metabolism, and environmental stress responses in Aspergillus flavus. When sfgA was deleted in A. flavus, the fungal growth was slowed, but the conidiation was significantly increased, and the sclerotia formation displayed different behavior at different temperatures, which increased at 30 °C but decreased at 36 °C. In addition, sfgA regulated aflatoxin biosynthesis in a complex way that was associated with the changes in cultured conditions, and the increased production of aflatoxin in the ∆sfgA mutant was associated with a decrease in sclerotia size. Furthermore, the ∆sfgA mutant exhibited sensitivity to osmotic, oxidative, and cell wall stresses but still produced dense conidia. Transcriptome data indicated that numerous development- and secondary-metabolism-related genes were expressed differently when sfgA was deleted. Additionally, we also found that sfgA functions downstream of fluG in A. flavus, which is consistent with the genetic position in FluG-mediated conidiation in A. nidulans. Collectively, sfgA plays a critical role in the development, secondary metabolism, and stress responses of A. flavus, and sfgA renders A. flavus more stable to the external environment. Full article

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23 pages, 3243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Transcriptomes of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi ssp. americana Colonizing Resistant or Sensitive Genotypes of American Elm

by Martha Nigg, Thais C. de Oliveira, Jorge L. Sarmiento-Villamil, Paul Y. de la Bastide, Will E. Hintz, Sherif M. Sherif, Mukund Shukla, Louis Bernier and Praveen K. Saxena

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060637 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3420

Abstract

The Ascomycete Ophiostoma novo-ulmi threatens elm populations worldwide. The molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenicity and virulence are still largely uncharacterized. As part of a collaborative study of the O. novo-ulmi-elm interactome, we analyzed the O. novo-ulmi ssp. americana transcriptomes obtained by deep [...] Read more.

The Ascomycete Ophiostoma novo-ulmi threatens elm populations worldwide. The molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenicity and virulence are still largely uncharacterized. As part of a collaborative study of the O. novo-ulmi-elm interactome, we analyzed the O. novo-ulmi ssp. americana transcriptomes obtained by deep sequencing of messenger RNAs recovered from Ulmus americana saplings from one resistant (Valley Forge, VF) and one susceptible (S) elm genotypes at 0 and 96 h post-inoculation (hpi). Transcripts were identified for 6424 of the 8640 protein-coding genes annotated in the O. novo-ulmi nuclear genome. A total of 1439 genes expressed in planta had orthologs in the PHI-base curated database of genes involved in host-pathogen interactions, whereas 472 genes were considered differentially expressed (DEG) in S elms (370 genes) and VF elms (102 genes) at 96 hpi. Gene ontology (GO) terms for processes and activities associated with transport and transmembrane transport accounted for half (27/55) of GO terms that were significantly enriched in fungal genes upregulated in S elms, whereas the 22 GO terms enriched in genes overexpressed in VF elms included nine GO terms associated with metabolism, catabolism and transport of carbohydrates. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified three modules that were significantly associated with higher gene expression in S elms. The three modules accounted for 727 genes expressed in planta and included 103 DEGs upregulated in S elms. Knockdown- and knockout mutants were obtained for eight O. novo-ulmi genes. Although mutants remained virulent towards U. americana saplings, we identified a large repertoire of additional candidate O. novo-ulmi pathogenicity genes for functional validation by loss-of-function approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dutch Elm Disease in the 21st Century)

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15 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combination of Sodium Bicarbonate (SBC) with Bacterial Antagonists for the Control of Brown Rot Disease of Fruit

by Nadia Lyousfi, Chaimaa Letrib, Ikram Legrifi, Abdelali Blenzar, Assia El Khetabi, Hajar El Hamss, Zineb Belabess, Essaid Ait Barka and Rachid Lahlali

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060636 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3372

Abstract

Simultaneous treatment with antagonistic bacteria Bacillus amylolquefaciens (SF14), Alcaligenes faecalis (ACBC1), and the food additive sodium bicarbonate (SBC) to control post-harvest brown rot disease caused by Monilinia fructigena, and their effect on the post-harvest quality of nectarines were evaluated. Four concentrations of [...] Read more.

Simultaneous treatment with antagonistic bacteria Bacillus amylolquefaciens (SF14), Alcaligenes faecalis (ACBC1), and the food additive sodium bicarbonate (SBC) to control post-harvest brown rot disease caused by Monilinia fructigena, and their effect on the post-harvest quality of nectarines were evaluated. Four concentrations of SBC (0.5, 2, 3.5, and 5%) were tested. Results showed that bacterial antagonists displayed remarkable compatibility with different concentrations of SBC and that their viability was not affected. The results obtained in vitro and in vivo bioassays showed a strong inhibitory effect of all treatments. The combination of each bacterial antagonist with SBC revealed a significant improvement in their biocontrol efficacies. The inhibition rates of mycelial growth ranged from 60.97 to 100%. These results also indicated that bacterial antagonists (SF14 or ACBC1) used at 1 × 10⁸ CFU/ mL in combination with 2, 3.5, or 5% SBC significantly improved the control of M. fructigina by inhibiting the germination of spores. Interestingly, disease incidence and lesion diameter in fruits treated with SF14, ACBC1 alone, or in combination with SBC were significantly lower than those in the untreated fruits. In vivo results showed a significant reduction in disease severity ranging from 9.27 to 64.83% compared to the untreated control, while maintaining the appearance, firmness, total soluble solids (TSS), and titratable acidity (TA) of fruits. These results suggested that the improved disease control by the two antagonistic bacteria was more likely due to the additional inhibitory effects of SBC on the mycelial growth and spore germination of the pathogenic fungus. Overall, the combination of both bacteria with SBC provided better control of brown rot disease. Therefore, a mixture of different management strategies can effectively control brown rot decay on fruits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Fungal Pathogens: Isolation, Characterization and Control Strategies)

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12 pages, 875 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Directed Yeast Genome Evolution

by Zhen Yao, Qinhong Wang and Zongjie Dai

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060635 - 15 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3037

Abstract

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) fungus, has become one of the most widely used chassis cells for industrial applications and basic research. However, owing to its complex genetic background and intertwined metabolic networks, there are still many obstacles [...] Read more.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) fungus, has become one of the most widely used chassis cells for industrial applications and basic research. However, owing to its complex genetic background and intertwined metabolic networks, there are still many obstacles that need to be overcome in order to improve desired traits and to successfully link genotypes to phenotypes. In this context, genome editing and evolutionary technology have rapidly progressed over the last few decades to facilitate the rapid generation of tailor-made properties as well as for the precise determination of relevant gene targets that regulate physiological functions, including stress resistance, metabolic-pathway optimization and organismal adaptation. Directed genome evolution has emerged as a versatile tool to enable researchers to access desired traits and to study increasingly complicated phenomena. Here, the development of directed genome evolutions in S. cerevisiae is reviewed, with a focus on different techniques driving evolutionary engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities in Fungal Biotechnology)

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16 pages, 1836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Perilipin Affects Lipid Droplet Homeostasis and Aerial Hyphal Growth, but Has Only Small Effects on Virulence in the Insect Pathogenic Fungus Beauveria bassiana

by Xiaoyun Wang, Yu Liu, Nemat O. Keyhani, Shengan Zhu, Jing Wang, Junyao Wang, Dan Jin and Yanhua Fan

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060634 - 15 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2173

Abstract

Lipid assimilation, storage, and turnover impact growth, development, and virulence in many microbial pathogens including fungi. Perilipins are proteins associated with lipid droplets (LDs) that mediate their assembly and turnover. Here, we characterized the Beauveria bassiana (BbPlin1) perilipin. BbPlin1 expression was [...] Read more.

Lipid assimilation, storage, and turnover impact growth, development, and virulence in many microbial pathogens including fungi. Perilipins are proteins associated with lipid droplets (LDs) that mediate their assembly and turnover. Here, we characterized the Beauveria bassiana (BbPlin1) perilipin. BbPlin1 expression was higher in minimal media than in rich media, and, using a BbPlin1::eGFP fusion protein, the protein was shown to be co–localized to LDs, with the high expression seen during infection and proliferation within the insect (Galleria mellonella) host that dramatically decreased to almost no expression during fungal outgrowth on cadavers including in conidia, but that BbPlin1 production resumed in the conidia once placed in nutrient–containing media allowing for germination and growth. Characterization of a targeted gene deletion strain (ΔBbPlin1) revealed a dramatic (>30%) reduction in cellular LD content, promotion of aerial hyphal growth, and a small decrease in virulence, with little to no effects on vegetative growth and stress responses. However, in the ΔBbPlin1 strain, expression of the complementary LD–associated caleosin gene, BbCal1, was enhanced under nutrient–poor conditions, although no changes in BbPlin1 expression were seen in a ΔBbCal1 strain and the expression of BbPlin1 in the ΔBbCal1 strain did not change LD patterns in cells. Transcriptome and RT–PCR analyses indicated increased expression of lipid metabolism–related genes, including triacylglyercol lipase 3, enoyl–CoA isomerase, and diacylglycerol–O–acetyl transferase in the BbPlin1 deletion mutant. Lipid profile analyses confirmed that the loss of BbPlin1 significantly reduced the cellular levels of contents of triacylglycerol, diacylglycerol, and phosphatidylethanolamine as compared to the wild–type strain. These results demonstrate the involvement of the B. bassiana perilipin in mediating lipid homeostasis, fungal aerial hyphal growth, and virulence, revealing critical cycling from high expression during nutrient utilization within host cadavers to low expression during growth on the surface of the cadaver during the infection process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions between Filamentous Fungal Pathogens and Hosts)

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99 pages, 6774 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Global Overview of Diversity and Phylogeny of the Rust Genus Uromyces

by Ajay Kumar Gautam, Shubhi Avasthi, Rajnish Kumar Verma, Sushma, Mekala Niranjan, Bandarupalli Devadatha, Ruvishika S. Jayawardena, Nakarin Suwannarach and Samantha C. Karunarathna

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060633 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7911

Abstract

Uromyces is the second-largest plant pathogenic rust genus, is responsible for numerous diseases, and has major effects on both agricultural and non-agricultural plants. The genus is generally characterized by its unicellular teliospores that help to characterize it and distinguish it from another important [...] Read more.

Uromyces is the second-largest plant pathogenic rust genus, is responsible for numerous diseases, and has major effects on both agricultural and non-agricultural plants. The genus is generally characterized by its unicellular teliospores that help to characterize it and distinguish it from another important rust genus, Puccinia. In this study, a global overview of the diversity and distribution of Uromyces is presented based on both online and offline resources. The information obtained was analyzed for numerical and graphical summaries to provide the diversity and distribution of the genus by country and continent. Besides this, broad taxonomical aspects, a brief life cycle, and other comparative aspects on diversity and distribution were also provided. In addition, a phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS and nLSU DNA sequence data available in GenBank and published literature was performed to examine the intergeneric relationships of Uromyces. The results obtained revealed that the rust genus is found distributed over 150 countries, territories, and occupancies of the world on around 647 plant genera belonging to 95 plant families. Phylogenetic studies based on LSU and ITS sequence data revealed that Uromyces species are polyphyletic and require more DNA-based analyses for a better understanding of their taxonomic placement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Fungal Diversity)

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33 pages, 2023 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant Beneficial Bacteria as Bioprotectants against Wheat and Barley Diseases

by Emma Dutilloy, Feyisara Eyiwumi Oni, Qassim Esmaeel, Christophe Clément and Essaid Ait Barka

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060632 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5421

Abstract

Wheat and barley are the main cereal crops cultivated worldwide and serve as staple food for a third of the world’s population. However, due to enormous biotic stresses, the annual production has significantly reduced by 30–70%. Recently, the accelerated use of beneficial bacteria [...] Read more.

Wheat and barley are the main cereal crops cultivated worldwide and serve as staple food for a third of the world’s population. However, due to enormous biotic stresses, the annual production has significantly reduced by 30–70%. Recently, the accelerated use of beneficial bacteria in the control of wheat and barley pathogens has gained prominence. In this review, we synthesized information about beneficial bacteria with demonstrated protection capacity against major barley and wheat pathogens including Fusarium graminearum, Zymoseptoria tritici and Pyrenophora teres. By summarizing the general insights into molecular factors involved in plant-pathogen interactions, we show to an extent, the means by which beneficial bacteria are implicated in plant defense against wheat and barley diseases. On wheat, many Bacillus strains predominantly reduced the disease incidence of F. graminearum and Z. tritici. In contrast, on barley, the efficacy of a few Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Paraburkholderia spp. has been established against P. teres. Although several modes of action were described for these strains, we have highlighted the role of Bacillus and Pseudomonas secondary metabolites in mediating direct antagonism and induced resistance against these pathogens. Furthermore, we advance a need to ascertain the mode of action of beneficial bacteria/molecules to enhance a solution-based crop protection strategy. Moreover, an apparent disjoint exists between numerous experiments that have demonstrated disease-suppressive effects and the translation of these successes to commercial products and applications. Clearly, the field of cereal disease protection leaves a lot to be explored and uncovered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Fungal Pathogens: Isolation, Characterization and Control Strategies)

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16 pages, 5441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leaf-Associated Epiphytic Fungi of Gingko biloba, Pinus bungeana and Sabina chinensis Exhibit Delicate Seasonal Variations

by Lijun Bao, Bo Sun, Jiayu Liu, Shiwei Zhang, Nan Xu, Xiaoran Zhang, Tsing Bohu and Zhihui Bai

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060631 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3484

Abstract

Plant-leaf surface on Earth harbors complex microbial communities that influence plant productivity and health. To gain a detailed understanding of the assembly and key drivers of leaf microbial communities, especially for leaf-associated fungi, we investigated leaf-associated fungal communities in two seasons for three [...] Read more.

Plant-leaf surface on Earth harbors complex microbial communities that influence plant productivity and health. To gain a detailed understanding of the assembly and key drivers of leaf microbial communities, especially for leaf-associated fungi, we investigated leaf-associated fungal communities in two seasons for three plant species at two sites by high-throughput sequencing. The results reveal a strong impact of growing season and plant species on fungal community composition, exhibiting clear temporal patterns in abundance and diversity. For the deciduous tree Gingko biloba, the number of enriched genera in May was much higher than that in October. The number of enriched genera in the two evergreen trees Pinus bungeana and Sabina chinensis was slightly higher in October than in May. Among the genus-level biomarkers, the abundances of Alternaria, Cladosporium and Filobasidium were significantly higher in October than in May in the three tree species. Additionally, network correlations between the leaf-associated fungi of G. biloba were more complex in May than those in October, containing extra negative associations, which was more obvious than the network correlation changes of leaf-associated fungi of the two evergreen plant species. Overall, the fungal diversity and community composition varied significantly between different growing seasons and host plant species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Fungal Diversity)

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35 pages, 4185 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bambusicolous Fungi in Pleosporales: Introducing Four Novel Taxa and a New Habitat Record for Anastomitrabeculia didymospora

by Rungtiwa Phookamsak, Hongbo Jiang, Nakarin Suwannarach, Saisamorn Lumyong, Jianchu Xu, Sheng Xu, Chun-Fang Liao and Putarak Chomnunti

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060630 - 13 Jun 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3555

Abstract

While conducting a survey of bambusicolous fungi in northern Thailand and southwestern China, several saprobic fungi were collected from dead branches, culms and twigs of bamboos, which were preliminarily identified as species belonging to Pleosporales (Dothideomycetes) based on a morphological approach. Multigene phylogenetic [...] Read more.

While conducting a survey of bambusicolous fungi in northern Thailand and southwestern China, several saprobic fungi were collected from dead branches, culms and twigs of bamboos, which were preliminarily identified as species belonging to Pleosporales (Dothideomycetes) based on a morphological approach. Multigene phylogenetic analyses based on ITS, LSU, SSU, rpb2, tef1-α and tub2 demonstrated four novel taxa belonging to the families Parabambusicolaceae, Pyrenochaetopsidaceae and Tetraploasphaeriaceae. Hence, Paramultiseptospora bambusae sp. et gen. nov., Pyrenochaetopsis yunnanensis sp. nov. and Tetraploa bambusae sp. nov. are introduced. In addition, Anastomitrabeculia didymospora found on bamboo twigs in terrestrial habitats is reported for the first time. Detailed morphological descriptions and updated phylogenetic trees of each family are provided herein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ascomycota: Diversity, Taxonomy and Phylogeny)

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9 pages, 519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sexual Compatibility Types in F₁ Progenies of Sclerospora graminicola, the Causal Agent of Pearl Millet Downy Mildew

by Chandramani Raj and Rajan Sharma

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060629 - 13 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1879

Abstract

Sclerospora graminicola is primarily heterothallic in nature with two distinct mating types (G₁ and G₂); however, homothallism does exist in the pathogen populations. In this study, a cross was made between two self-sterile isolates (Sg 019, Mat-2, G₂ [...] Read more.

Sclerospora graminicola is primarily heterothallic in nature with two distinct mating types (G₁ and G₂); however, homothallism does exist in the pathogen populations. In this study, a cross was made between two self-sterile isolates (Sg 019, Mat-2, G₂ × Sg 445-1, Mat-1, G₁) of S. graminicola and a total of 39 F₁ progenies were established. The study on sexual compatibility types in F₁ progenies was conducted by crossing each F₁ progeny with both the parents (Sg 445-1, Mat-1, G₁; and Sg 019, Mat-2, G₂). The results revealed the presence of four sexual compatibility types, viz. G₁, G₂, G₁G₂ and G₀ (neuter) in the progenies. The G₁G₂ progenies that produced oospores with both the parents were found as self-fertile (homothallic) and self-sterile (heterothallic) types. Similarly, self-fertile parental type G₁ and G₂ progenies were designated as secondary homothallic, whereas self-sterile parental type G₁ and G₂ progenies were of heterothallic type. The result of the present study revealed Mendelian segregation of mating type locus in S. graminicola which indicates that sexual reproduction plays an important role in the evolution of new genetic recombinants in the pathogen. The study also helps in understanding the genetic structure of S. graminicola populations and potential for possible evolution of new virulences in the pathogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oomycetes – Diversity, Taxonomy, Evolution, Ecology and Host-Pathogen Interactions)

36 pages, 20701 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sulfur-Containing Compounds from Endophytic Fungi: Sources, Structures and Bioactivities

by Yaqin Fan, Zhiheng Ma, Yan Zhang, Yufei Wang, Yousong Ding, Cong Wang and Shugeng Cao

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060628 - 13 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2953

Abstract

Endophytic fungi have attracted increasing attention as an under-explored source for the discovery and development of structurally and functionally diverse secondary metabolites. These microorganisms colonize their hosts, primarily plants, and demonstrate diverse ecological distribution. Among endophytic fungal natural products, sulfur-containing compounds feature one [...] Read more.

Endophytic fungi have attracted increasing attention as an under-explored source for the discovery and development of structurally and functionally diverse secondary metabolites. These microorganisms colonize their hosts, primarily plants, and demonstrate diverse ecological distribution. Among endophytic fungal natural products, sulfur-containing compounds feature one or more sulfur atoms and possess a range of bioactivities, e.g., cytotoxicity and antimicrobial activities. These natural products mainly belong to the classes of polyketides, nonribosomal peptides, terpenoids, and hybrids. Here, we reviewed the fungal producers, plant sources, chemical structures, and bioactivities of 143 new sulfur-containing compounds that were reported from 1985 to March 2022. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Secondary Metabolites from Fungi—in Honour of Prof. Dr. Ji-Kai Liu's 60th Birthday)

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11 pages, 1080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Zoonotic Dermatophyte Infection in Pet Rabbits in Northern Taiwan

by Che-Cheng Chang, Wittawat Wechtaisong, Shih-Yu Chen, Ming-Chu Cheng, Cheng-Shu Chung, Lee-Shuan Lin, Yi-Yang Lien and Yi-Lun Tsai

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060627 - 13 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3358

Abstract

Dermatophytes are the group of keratinophilic fungi that cause superficial cutaneous infection, which traditionally belong to the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Dermatophyte infection is not only a threat to the health of small animals, but also an important zoonotic [...] Read more.

Dermatophytes are the group of keratinophilic fungi that cause superficial cutaneous infection, which traditionally belong to the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Dermatophyte infection is not only a threat to the health of small animals, but also an important zoonotic and public health issue because of the potential transmission from animals to humans. Rabbit dermatophytosis is often clinically identified; however, limited information was found in Asia. The aims of this study are to investigate the prevalence and to evaluate the risk factors of dermatophytosis in pet rabbits in Northern Taiwan. Between March 2016 and October 2018, dander samples of pet rabbits were collected for fungal infection examination by Wood’s lamp, microscopic examination (KOH preparation), fungal culture, and PCR assay (molecular identification). Z test and Fisher’s exact test were performed to evaluate the potential risk factors, and logistic regression analysis was then performed to build the model of risk factors related to dermatophyte infection. Of the collected 250 dander samples of pet rabbits, 29 (11.6%) samples were positive for dermatophytes by molecular identification. In those samples, 28 samples were identified as the T. mentagrophytes complex and 1 sample was identified as M. canis. Based on the results of the Firth’s bias reduction logistic analyses, animal source (rabbits purchased from pet shops) and number of rearing rabbits (three rabbits or more) were shown as the main risks for dermatophyte infection in the pet rabbits in Taiwan. The results of the present study elucidate the prevalence of rabbit dermatophyte infection, pathogens, and risk factors in Taiwan, and provide an important reference for the prevention and control of rabbit dermatophytosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Diseases in Animals)

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19 pages, 2063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyphasic Characterization of Four Aspergillus Species as Potential Biocontrol Agents for White Mold Disease of Bean

by Osama O. Atallah, Yasser S. A. Mazrou, Mahmoud M. Atia, Yasser Nehela, Abdelrazek S. Abdelrhim and Maha M. Nader

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060626 - 12 Jun 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5917

Abstract

The genus Aspergillus comprises several species that play pivotal roles in agriculture. Herein, we morphologically and physiologically characterized four genetically distinct Aspergillus spp., namely A. japonicus, A. niger, A. flavus, and A. pseudoelegans, and examined their ability to suppress the [...] Read more.

The genus Aspergillus comprises several species that play pivotal roles in agriculture. Herein, we morphologically and physiologically characterized four genetically distinct Aspergillus spp., namely A. japonicus, A. niger, A. flavus, and A. pseudoelegans, and examined their ability to suppress the white mold disease of bean caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in vitro and under greenhouse conditions. Seriation type of Aspergillus spp. correlates with conidiospores discharge as detected on the Petri glass lid. Members of Nigri section cover their conidial heads with hard shells after prolonged incubation. In addition, sporulation of the tested Aspergillus isolates is temperature sensitive as it becomes inhibited at low temperatures and the colonies become white. Examined Aspergillus spp. were neither infectious to legumes nor aflatoxigenic as confirmed by HPLC except for A. flavus and A. pseudoelegans which, secreted 5 and 1 ppm of aflatoxin B1, respectively. Co-inoculations of Sclerotinia’s mycelium or sclerotia with a spore suspension of Aspergillus spp. inhibited their germination on PDA at 18 °C and 28 °C, and halted disease onset on detached common bean and soybean leaves. Similarly, plants treated with A. japonicus and A. niger showed the highest survival rates compared to untreated plants. In conclusion, black Aspergillus spp. are efficient biocides and safe alternatives for the management of plant diseases, particularly in organic farms. Full article

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21 pages, 2339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibiotic-Induced Treatments Reveal Stress-Responsive Gene Expression in the Endangered Lichen Lobaria pulmonaria

by Tania Chavarria-Pizarro, Philipp Resl, Theresa Kuhl-Nagel, Aleksandar Janjic, Fernando Fernandez Mendoza and Silke Werth

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060625 - 12 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2744

Abstract

Antibiotics are primarily found in the environment due to human activity, which has been reported to influence the structure of biotic communities and the ecological functions of soil and water ecosystems. Nonetheless, their effects in other terrestrial ecosystems have not been well studied. [...] Read more.

Antibiotics are primarily found in the environment due to human activity, which has been reported to influence the structure of biotic communities and the ecological functions of soil and water ecosystems. Nonetheless, their effects in other terrestrial ecosystems have not been well studied. As a result of oxidative stress in organisms exposed to high levels of antibiotics, genotoxicity can lead to DNA damage and, potentially, cell death. In addition, in symbiotic organisms, removal of the associated microbiome by antibiotic treatment has been observed to have a big impact on the host, e.g., corals. The lung lichen Lobaria pulmonaria has more than 800 associated bacterial species, a microbiome which has been hypothesized to increase the lichen’s fitness. We artificially exposed samples of L. pulmonaria to antibiotics and a stepwise temperature increase to determine the relative effects of antibiotic treatments vs. temperature on the mycobiont and photobiont gene expression and the viability and on the community structure of the lichen-associated bacteria. We found that the mycobiont and photobiont highly reacted to different antibiotics, independently of temperature exposure. We did not find major differences in bacterial community composition or alpha diversity between antibiotic treatments and controls. For these reasons, the upregulation of stress-related genes in antibiotic-treated samples could be caused by genotoxicity in L. pulmonaria and its photobiont caused by exposure to antibiotics, and the observed stress responses are reactions of the symbiotic partners to reduce damage to their cells. Our study is of great interest for the community of researchers studying symbiotic organisms as it represents one of the first steps to understanding gene expression in an endangered lichen in response to exposure to toxic environments, along with dynamics in its associated bacterial communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Species Diversity, Ecology and Evolutionary History of Lichenized Fungi)

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23 pages, 5441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Genome-Wide Transcription Profiling and Direct Target Genes of CmWC-1 Reveal Hierarchical Light Signal Transduction in Cordyceps militaris

by Jiaojiao Zhang, Fen Wang, Mengqian Liu, Mingjia Fu and Caihong Dong

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060624 - 11 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2463

Abstract

Light is necessary for primordium differentiation and fruiting body development for most edible fungi; however, light perception and signal transduction have only been well studied in model fungi. In this study, a hierarchical network of transcriptional response to light in Cordyceps militaris, [...] Read more.

Light is necessary for primordium differentiation and fruiting body development for most edible fungi; however, light perception and signal transduction have only been well studied in model fungi. In this study, a hierarchical network of transcriptional response to light in Cordyceps militaris, one of the edible fungi, has been described on a genome-wide scale using dynamic transcriptome analysis. It was shown that light regulated the transcript of 1722 genes, making up 18% of the whole genome of C. militaris. Analysis of light-responsive genes in C. militaris identified 4 categories: immediate-early, early, late, and continuous light-responsive genes, and the gene number increased distinctly with prolonged light exposure. Light-responsive genes with distinct functional categories showed specific time-dependent regulation. The target genes of CmWC-1, the most important photoreceptor, were revealed by ChIP-seq. A total of 270 significant peaks corresponding to 427 genes were identified to be directly regulated by CmWC-1, among which 143 genes respond to light. Based on 270 ChIP-seq peaks, the binding site for CmWC-1 was identified as AAATCAGACCAC/GTGGTCTGATTT, differing from the binding site by the homolog in Neurospora crassa. Elucidating the mechanisms of light perception and signal transduction will be helpful for further research on the fruiting body development in edible fungi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genomics and Evolution of Macrofungi)

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26 pages, 6142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pluteus insidiosus Complex, Four New Species Described and Pluteus reisneri Resurrected

by Hana Ševčíková, Giuliano Ferisin, Ekaterina Malysheva, Alfredo Justo, Jacob Heilmann-Clausen, Egon Horak, Lyudmila Kalinina, Oğuzhan Kaygusuz, Henning Knudsen, Nelson Menolli, Jr., Pierre-Arthur Moreau, Guillermo Muñoz González, Irja Saar, İbrahim Türkekul and Francesco Dovana

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060623 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4039

Abstract

We studied the taxonomy of Pluteus insidiosus and similar species using morphological and molecular (nrITS, TEF1-α) data, including a detailed study of the type collection of P. insidiosus. Based on our results, we recognize five species in this group: P. insidiosus [...] Read more.

We studied the taxonomy of Pluteus insidiosus and similar species using morphological and molecular (nrITS, TEF1-α) data, including a detailed study of the type collection of P. insidiosus. Based on our results, we recognize five species in this group: P. insidiosus sensu stricto and four other taxa: P. assimilatus; P. farensis; P. flavostipitatus; and P. pseudoinsidiosus; described here as new. All these taxa are distinct from each other based on molecular data, but some of them are semi-cryptic based on morphology and co-occur in the Palaearctic region. An additional molecular lineage, phylogenetically separates from the P. insidiosus complex, but with many morphological similarities, was recognized in the molecular phylogenies. Based on the revision of available type collections, the name Pluteus reisneri Velen., was adopted for this Clade. Pluteus reisneri was validly published in 1921, but it has barely been used since its original description. A modern epitype, with molecular data, was selected for P. reisneri. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Holarctic Fungi: Taxonomy, Phylogeny, Ecology, Nutrition Interactions and Distribution)

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14 pages, 1970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peroxins in Peroxisomal Receptor Export System Contribute to Development, Stress Response, and Virulence of Insect Pathogenic Fungus Beauveria bassiana

by Jia Hou, Haiyan Lin, Jinli Ding, Mingguang Feng and Shenghua Ying

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060622 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2109

Abstract

In filamentous fungi, recycling of receptors responsible for protein targeting to peroxisomes depends on the receptor export system (RES), which consists of peroxins Pex1, Pex6, and Pex26. This study seeks to functionally characterize these peroxins in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. BbPex1, [...] Read more.

In filamentous fungi, recycling of receptors responsible for protein targeting to peroxisomes depends on the receptor export system (RES), which consists of peroxins Pex1, Pex6, and Pex26. This study seeks to functionally characterize these peroxins in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. BbPex1, BbPex6, and BbPex26 are associated with peroxisomes and interact with each other. The loss of these peroxins did not completely abolish the peroxisome biogenesis. Three peroxins were all absolutely required for PTS1 pathway; however, only BbPex6 and BbPex26 were required for protein translocation via PTS2 pathway. Three gene disruption mutants displayed the similar phenotypic defects in assimilation of nutrients (e.g., fatty acid, protein, and chitin), stress response (e.g., oxidative and osmotic stress), and virulence. Notably, all disruptant displayed significantly enhanced sensitivity to linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid. This study reinforces the essential roles of the peroxisome in the lifecycle of entomopathogenic fungi and highlights peroxisomal roles in combating the host defense system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions between Filamentous Fungal Pathogens and Hosts)

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29 pages, 2645 KiB

Open AccessReview

Post-Translational Modifications of PCNA: Guiding for the Best DNA Damage Tolerance Choice

by Gemma Bellí, Neus Colomina, Laia Castells-Roca and Neus P. Lorite

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060621 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5105

Abstract

The sliding clamp PCNA is a multifunctional homotrimer mainly linked to DNA replication. During this process, cells must ensure an accurate and complete genome replication when constantly challenged by the presence of DNA lesions. Post-translational modifications of PCNA play a crucial role in [...] Read more.

The sliding clamp PCNA is a multifunctional homotrimer mainly linked to DNA replication. During this process, cells must ensure an accurate and complete genome replication when constantly challenged by the presence of DNA lesions. Post-translational modifications of PCNA play a crucial role in channeling DNA damage tolerance (DDT) and repair mechanisms to bypass unrepaired lesions and promote optimal fork replication restart. PCNA ubiquitination processes trigger the following two main DDT sub-pathways: Rad6/Rad18-dependent PCNA monoubiquitination and Ubc13-Mms2/Rad5-mediated PCNA polyubiquitination, promoting error-prone translation synthesis (TLS) or error-free template switch (TS) pathways, respectively. However, the fork protection mechanism leading to TS during fork reversal is still poorly understood. In contrast, PCNA sumoylation impedes the homologous recombination (HR)-mediated salvage recombination (SR) repair pathway. Focusing on Saccharomyces cerevisiae budding yeast, we summarized PCNA related-DDT and repair mechanisms that coordinately sustain genome stability and cell survival. In addition, we compared PCNA sequences from various fungal pathogens, considering recent advances in structural features. Importantly, the identification of PCNA epitopes may lead to potential fungal targets for antifungal drug development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genome Plasticity and DNA Repair in Candida albicans and Other Related Fungi)

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3 pages, 177 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Diagnosis and Treatment of Fungus and Virus Interaction

by Chih-Cheng Lai and Wen-Liang Yu

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060620 - 10 Jun 2022

Viewed by 1790

Abstract

Many viruses can have a serious impact on human respiratory disease, e [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis and Treatment of Fungus and Virus Interaction)

12 pages, 2765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Research on Metabolites of Different Species of Epichloë Endophytes and Their Host Achnatherum sibiricum

by Yongkang Deng, Yuan Gao, Chenxi Li, Junzhen Zhang, Xiaowen Fan, Nianxi Zhao, Yubao Gao and Anzhi Ren

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060619 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2478

Abstract

Achnatherum sibiricum can be infected by two species of fungal endophytes, Epichloë gansuensis (Eg) and Epichloë sibirica (Es). In this study, the metabolites of Eg, Es, and their infected plants were studied by GC–MS analysis. The results showed that the metabolic [...] Read more.

Achnatherum sibiricum can be infected by two species of fungal endophytes, Epichloë gansuensis (Eg) and Epichloë sibirica (Es). In this study, the metabolites of Eg, Es, and their infected plants were studied by GC–MS analysis. The results showed that the metabolic profiles of Eg and Es were similar in general, and only six differential metabolites were detected. The direct effect of endophyte infection on the metabolites in A. sibiricum was that endophyte-infected plants could produce mannitol, which was not present in uninfected plants. Epichloë infection indirectly caused an increase in the soluble sugars in A. sibiricum related to growth and metabolites related to the defense against pathogens and herbivores, such as α-tocopherol, α-linolenic acid and aromatic amino acids. Epichloë infection could regulate galactose metabolism, starch and sucrose metabolism, tyrosine metabolism and phenylalanine metabolism of host grass. In addition, there was a significant positive correlation in the metabolite contents between the endophyte and the host. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Endophytes of Grasses)

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18 pages, 3210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Marine Natural Product Antimycin A Suppresses Wheat Blast Disease Caused by Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum

by Sanjoy Kumar Paul, Moutoshi Chakraborty, Mahfuzur Rahman, Dipali Rani Gupta, Nur Uddin Mahmud, Abdullah Al Mahbub Rahat, Aniruddha Sarker, Md. Abdul Hannan, Md. Mahbubur Rahman, Abdul Mannan Akanda, Jalal Uddin Ahmed and Tofazzal Islam

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060618 - 9 Jun 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3558

Abstract

The application of chemical pesticides to protect agricultural crops from pests and diseases is discouraged due to their harmful effects on humans and the environment. Therefore, alternative approaches for crop protection through microbial or microbe-originated pesticides have been gaining momentum. Wheat blast is [...] Read more.

The application of chemical pesticides to protect agricultural crops from pests and diseases is discouraged due to their harmful effects on humans and the environment. Therefore, alternative approaches for crop protection through microbial or microbe-originated pesticides have been gaining momentum. Wheat blast is a destructive fungal disease caused by the Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum (MoT) pathotype, which poses a serious threat to global food security. Screening of secondary metabolites against MoT revealed that antimycin A isolated from a marine Streptomyces sp. had a significant inhibitory effect on mycelial growth in vitro. This study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effects of antimycin A on some critical life stages of MoT and evaluate the efficacy of wheat blast disease control using this natural product. A bioassay indicated that antimycin A suppressed mycelial growth (62.90%), conidiogenesis (100%), germination of conidia (42%), and the formation of appressoria in the germinated conidia (100%) of MoT at a 10 µg/mL concentration. Antimycin A suppressed MoT in a dose-dependent manner with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 0.005 μg/disk. If germinated, antimycin A induced abnormal germ tubes (4.8%) and suppressed the formation of appressoria. Interestingly, the application of antimycin A significantly suppressed wheat blast disease in both the seedling (100%) and heading stages (76.33%) of wheat at a 10 µg/mL concentration, supporting the results from in vitro study. This is the first report on the inhibition of mycelial growth, conidiogenesis, conidia germination, and detrimental morphological alterations in germinated conidia, and the suppression of wheat blast disease caused by a Triticum pathotype of M. Oryzae by antimycin A. Further study is required to unravel the precise mode of action of this promising natural compound for considering it as a biopesticide to combat wheat blast. Full article

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12 pages, 2993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Essential Oils of Bursera morelensis and Lippia graveolens and Five Pure Compounds on the Mycelium, Spore Production, and Germination of Species of Fusarium

by Yoli Mariana Medina-Romero, Mario Rodriguez-Canales, Marco Aurelio Rodriguez-Monroy, Ana Bertha Hernandez-Hernandez, Norma Laura Delgado-Buenrostro, Yolanda I. Chirino, Tonatiuh Cruz-Sanchez, Carlos Gerardo Garcia-Tovar and Maria Margarita Canales-Martinez

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060617 - 9 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2199

Abstract

The genus Fusarium causes many diseases in economically important plants. Synthetic agents are used to control postharvest diseases caused by Fusarium, but the use of these synthetic agents generates several problems, making it necessary to develop new alternative pesticides. Essential oils can [...] Read more.

The genus Fusarium causes many diseases in economically important plants. Synthetic agents are used to control postharvest diseases caused by Fusarium, but the use of these synthetic agents generates several problems, making it necessary to develop new alternative pesticides. Essential oils can be used as a new control strategy. The essential oils of Bursera morelensis and Lippia graveolens have been shown to have potent antifungal activity against Fusarium. However, for the adequate management of diseases, as well as the optimization of the use of essential oils, it is necessary to know how essential oils act on the growth and reproduction of the fungus. In this study, the target of action of the essential oils of B. morelensis and L. graveolens and of the pure compounds present in the essential oils (carvacrol, p-cymene, α-phellandrene, α-pinene, and Υ-terpinene) was determined by evaluating the effect on hyphal morphology, as well as on spore production and germination of three Fusarium species. In this work, carvacrol was found to be the compound that produced the highest inhibition of radial growth. Essential oils and pure compounds caused significant damage to hyphal morphology and affected spore production and germination of Fusarium species. Full article

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