Batteries

12 pages, 2502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Thermal Abuse Conditions on Thermal Runaway of NCA 18650 Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Battery

by Minkyu Jeon, Eunsong Lee, Hyunwook Park, Hongsik Yoon and Sangin Keel

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100196 - 21 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3610

In energy storage systems and electric vehicles utilizing lithium-ion batteries, an internal short circuit or a thermal runaway (TR) may result in fire-related accidents. Particularly, under non-oxygenated conditions, a fire can spread as a result of TR. In this study, a TR experiment [...] Read more.

In energy storage systems and electric vehicles utilizing lithium-ion batteries, an internal short circuit or a thermal runaway (TR) may result in fire-related accidents. Particularly, under non-oxygenated conditions, a fire can spread as a result of TR. In this study, a TR experiment was performed on a nickel–cobalt–aluminum 18650 cylindrical lithium-ion battery via thermal conduction. The time required to attain TR (temperature range: 250–500 °C) was drastically reduced from approximately 1200 s to 1 s. The chemical reaction rate of thermal runaway was classified according to temperature into two global mechanisms and applied to the Arrhenius equation, thereby yielding a correlation between plate temperature (

T_{P}

) and time difference of TR times

∆ t

(i.e.,

t_{1} - t_{0}

or

t_{2} - t_{0}

). As a result, activation energy for the overall reaction of the TR was estimated to be 39.9 kJ/mol. Furthermore, the safety guarantee time mandated by the safety regulation for vehicle batteries is 5 min; an analysis of the experiment results reveals that the following conditions can be satisfied:

T_{P}

= 308.4 °C,

Δ t (t_{1} - t_{0})

= 5 min;

T_{P}

= 326.2 °C,

Δ t (t_{2} - t_{0})

= 5 min. The experiment results offer a scientific basis for predicting the time of occurrence of TR and establishing safety standards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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19 pages, 4357 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Cooling Performance in a Cylindrical Battery with Single-Phase Direct Contact Cooling under Various Operating Conditions

by Minjun Kim, Jeonggyun Ham, Donghyeon Shin and Honghyun Cho

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100195 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3443

Abstract

This study compares the performance according to a working fluid, the number of battery cooling block ports, and header width required for cooling according to the application of the direct contact single-phase battery cooling method in a 1S16P battery module and examines the [...] Read more.

This study compares the performance according to a working fluid, the number of battery cooling block ports, and header width required for cooling according to the application of the direct contact single-phase battery cooling method in a 1S16P battery module and examines the battery cooling performance according to the flow rate under the standard and summer conditions based on an optimized model. The analysis result verified that R134a showed low-pressure drop and high cooling performance as the working fluid of the direct contact single-phase cooling system in the 1S16P battery module, and R134a showed the best cooling and stability when applied with three ports and a 5 mm header. In addition, under 25 °C outdoor conditions, the maximum temperature of the battery and the temperature difference between the batteries at 3 and 5 lpm excluding 1 lpm are 30.5 °C, 4.91 °C, and 28.7 °C, 3.28 °C, indicating that the flow rate of refrigerant was appropriate for battery safety. In contrast, in the summer condition of 35 °C, the maximum temperature of the battery and temperature difference between the batteries were 38.8 °C and 3.27 °C at the R134a flow rate of 5 lpm or more, which was verified as a stable flow condition for battery safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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14 pages, 3830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electronic, Optical, Mechanical and Li-Ion Storage Properties of Novel Benzotrithiophene-Based Graphdiyne Monolayers Explored by First Principles and Machine Learning

by Bohayra Mortazavi, Fazel Shojaei, Masoud Shahrokhi, Timon Rabczuk, Alexander V. Shapeev and Xiaoying Zhuang

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100194 - 19 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2419

Abstract

Recently, benzotrithiophene graphdiyne (BTT-GDY), a novel two-dimensional (2D) carbon-based material, was grown via a bottom-up synthesis strategy. Using the BTT-GDY lattice and by replacing the S atoms with N, NH and O, we designed three novel GDY lattices, which we named BTHP-, BTP- [...] Read more.

Recently, benzotrithiophene graphdiyne (BTT-GDY), a novel two-dimensional (2D) carbon-based material, was grown via a bottom-up synthesis strategy. Using the BTT-GDY lattice and by replacing the S atoms with N, NH and O, we designed three novel GDY lattices, which we named BTHP-, BTP- and BTF-GDY, respectively. Next, we explored structural, electronic, mechanical, optical, photocatalytic and Li-ion storage properties, as well as carrier mobilities, of novel GDY monolayers. Phonon dispersion relations, mechanical and failure behavior were explored using the machine learning interatomic potentials (MLIPs). The obtained HSE06 results reveal that BTX-GDYs (X = P, F, T) are direct gap semiconductors with band gaps in the range of 2.49–2.65 eV, whereas the BTHP-GDY shows a narrow indirect band gap of 0.06 eV. With appropriate band offsets, good carrier mobilities and a strong capability for the absorption of visible and ultraviolet range of light, BTF- and BTT-GDYs were predicted to be promising candidates for overall photocatalytic water splitting. The BTHP-GDY nanosheet, noticeably, was found to yield an ultrahigh Li-ion storage capacity of over 2400 mAh/g. The obtained findings provide a comprehensive vision of the critical physical properties of the novel BTT-based GDY nanosheets and highlight their potential for applications in nanoelectronics and energy storage and conversion systems. Full article

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19 pages, 3749 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Understanding Aqueous Organic Redox Flow Batteries: A Guided Experimental Tour from Components Characterization to Final Assembly

by Juan Asenjo-Pascual, Ivan Salmeron-Sanchez, Juan Ramón Avilés-Moreno, Pablo Mauleón, Petr Mazur and Pilar Ocón

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100193 - 19 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6579

Abstract

The implementation of renewable energies into the electrical grid is one of our best options to mitigate the climate change. Redox flow batteries (RFB) are one of the most promising candidates for energy storage due to their scalability, durability and low cost. Despite [...] Read more.

The implementation of renewable energies into the electrical grid is one of our best options to mitigate the climate change. Redox flow batteries (RFB) are one of the most promising candidates for energy storage due to their scalability, durability and low cost. Despite this, just few studies have explained the basic concepts of RFBs and even fewer have reviewed the experimental conditions that are crucial for their development. This work aspired to be a helpful guide for beginner researchers who want to work in this exciting field. This guided tour aimed to clearly explain all the components and parameters of RFBs. Using a well-studied chemistry of anthraquinone (AQDS)-based anolyte and Na₄[Fe(CN)₆] catholyte, different techniques for the characterization of RFBs were described. The effects of some experimental parameters on battery performance such as electrolyte pH, O₂ presence, membrane pretreatment and the capacity limiting side, were demonstrated. Furthermore, this analysis served to introduce different electrochemical techniques, i.e., load curve measurements, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and charge–discharge cycling tests. This work aimed to be the nexus between the basic concepts and the first experimental steps in the RFB field merging theory and experimental data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanistic Understanding of Electrochemical and Chemical Reactions in Batteries with Operando and In-Situ Methods)

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12 pages, 3112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Data-Driven Method for Online Battery Remaining-Useful-Life Prediction

by Sebastian Matthias Hell and Chong Dae Kim

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100192 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2880

Abstract

Remaining-useful-life (RUL) prediction of Li-ion batteries is used to provide an early indication of the expected lifetime of the battery, thereby reducing the risk of failure and increasing safety. In this paper, a detailed method is presented to make long-term predictions for the [...] Read more.

Remaining-useful-life (RUL) prediction of Li-ion batteries is used to provide an early indication of the expected lifetime of the battery, thereby reducing the risk of failure and increasing safety. In this paper, a detailed method is presented to make long-term predictions for the RUL based on a combination of gated recurrent unit neural network (GRU NN) and soft-sensing method. Firstly, an indirect health indicator (HI) was extracted from the charging processes using a soft-sensing method that can accurately describe power degradation instead of capacity. Then, a GRU NN with a sliding window was applied to learn the long-term performance development. The method also uses a dropout and early stopping method to prevent overfitting. To build the models and validate the effectiveness of the proposed method, a real-world NASA battery data set with various battery measurements was used. The results show that the method can produce a long-term and accurate RUL prediction at each position of the degradation progression based on several historical battery data sets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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24 pages, 10761 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polyaniline—Graphene Electrodes Prepared by Electropolymerization for High-Performance Capacitive Electrodes: A Brief Review

by Olena Okhay and Alexander Tkach

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100191 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2720

Abstract

Both polyaniline (PANI) and graphene are widely studied for their application as capacitive electrodes in energy storage devices. However, although PANI can be easy synthesized, is of low cost and has a higher specific capacitance than graphene, pristine PANI electrodes do not present [...] Read more.

Both polyaniline (PANI) and graphene are widely studied for their application as capacitive electrodes in energy storage devices. However, although PANI can be easy synthesized, is of low cost and has a higher specific capacitance than graphene, pristine PANI electrodes do not present long-term stability due to their large volume changes during release/doping of the electrolyte ions and surface area reduction with charge-discharge cycling. That is why a combination of PANI with carbonaceous materials, especially conductive and high-surface-area graphene as well as more widely used reduced graphene oxide (rGO), provides an effective approach to solve these problems. At the same time, the electropolymerization process is one of the possible methods for synthesis of PANI composites with G or rGO as freestanding electrodes. Therefore, no binders or additives such as carbon black or active carbon need to be used to obtain PANI/rGO electrodes by electrochemical polymerization (EP), in contrast to similar electrodes prepared by the chemical oxidative polymerization method. Thus, in this paper, we review recent advances in EP synthesis of PANI/rGO nanocomposites as high-performance capacitive electrode materials, combining the advantages of both electrical double-layer capacitance of rGO and pseudocapacitance of PANI, which hence exhibit long cycle life and high specific energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Conversion and Storage: Recent Advances and Prospects)

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13 pages, 2512 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Time-Dependent Behavior of Waste Lithium-Ion Batteries in Secondary Copper Smelting

by Anna Klemettinen, Lassi Klemettinen, Radosław Michallik, Hugh O’Brien and Ari Jokilaakso

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100190 - 17 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1996

Abstract

As the electrification sector expands rapidly, the demand for metals used in batteries is increasing significantly. New approaches for lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling have to be investigated and new technologies developed in order to secure the future supply of battery metals (i.e., lithium, [...] Read more.

As the electrification sector expands rapidly, the demand for metals used in batteries is increasing significantly. New approaches for lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling have to be investigated and new technologies developed in order to secure the future supply of battery metals (i.e., lithium, cobalt, nickel). In this work, the possibility of integrating LIB recycling with secondary copper smelting was further investigated. The time-dependent behavior of battery metals (Li, Co, Ni, Mn) in simulated secondary copper smelting conditions was investigated for the first time. In the study, copper alloy was used as a medium for collecting valuable metals and the distribution coefficients of these metals between copper alloy and slag were used for evaluating the recycling efficiencies. The determined distribution coefficients follow the order Ni >> Co >> Mn > Li throughout the time range investigated. In our study, the evolution of phases and their chemical composition were investigated in laboratory-scale experiments under reducing conditions of oxygen partial pressure p(O₂) = 10⁻¹⁰ atm, at 1300 °C. The results showed that already after 1 h holding time, the major elements were in equilibrium. However, based on the microstructural observations and trace elements distributions, the required full equilibration time for the system was determined to be 16 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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29 pages, 2328 KiB

Open AccessReview

SOC, SOH and RUL Estimation for Supercapacitor Management System: Methods, Implementation Factors, Limitations and Future Research Improvements

by Afida Ayob, Shaheer Ansari, Molla Shahadat Hossain Lipu, Aini Hussain and Mohamad Hanif Md Saad

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100189 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5315

Abstract

The development of a supercapacitor management system (SMS) for clean energy applications is crucial to addressing carbon emissions problems. Consequently, state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and remaining useful life (RUL) for SMS must be developed to evaluate supercapacitor robustness and [...] Read more.

The development of a supercapacitor management system (SMS) for clean energy applications is crucial to addressing carbon emissions problems. Consequently, state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and remaining useful life (RUL) for SMS must be developed to evaluate supercapacitor robustness and reliability for mitigating supercapacitor issues related to safety and economic loss. State estimation of SMS results in safe operation and eliminates undesirable event occurrences and malfunctions. However, state estimations of SMS are challenging and tedious, as SMS is subject to various internal and external factors such as internal degradation mechanism and environmental factors. This review presents a comprehensive discussion and analysis of model-based and data-driven-based techniques for SOC, SOH, and RUL estimations of SMS concerning outcomes, advantages, disadvantages, and research gaps. The work also investigates various key implementation factors such as a supercapacitor test bench platform, experiments, a supercapacitor cell, data pre-processing, data size, model operation, functions, hyperparameter adjustments, and computational capability. Several key limitations, challenges, and issues regarding SOC, SOH, and RUL estimations are outlined. Lastly, effective suggestions are outlined for future research improvements towards delivering accurate and effective SOC, SOH, and RUL estimations of SMS. Critical analysis and discussion would be useful for developing accurate SMS technology for state estimation of a supercapacitor with clean energy and high reliability, and will provide significant contributions towards reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) to achieve global collaboration and sustainable development goals (SDGs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging Ⅱ)

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22 pages, 6303 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Comprehensive Study of Degradation Characteristics and Mechanisms of Commercial Li(NiMnCo)O₂ EV Batteries under Vehicle-To-Grid (V2G) Services

by Yifan Wei, Yuan Yao, Kang Pang, Chaojie Xu, Xuebing Han, Languang Lu, Yalun Li, Yudi Qin, Yuejiu Zheng, Hewu Wang and Minggao Ouyang

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100188 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7555

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries on electric vehicles have been increasingly deployed for the enhancement of grid reliability and integration of renewable energy, while users are concerned about extra battery degradation caused by vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operations. This paper details a multi-year cycling study of commercial 24 [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries on electric vehicles have been increasingly deployed for the enhancement of grid reliability and integration of renewable energy, while users are concerned about extra battery degradation caused by vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operations. This paper details a multi-year cycling study of commercial 24 Ah pouch batteries with Li(NiMnCo)O₂ (NCM) cathode, varying the average state of charge (SOC), depth of discharge (DOD), and charging rate by 33 groups of experiment matrix. Based on the reduced freedom voltage parameter reconstruction (RF-VPR), a more efficient non-intrusive diagnosis is combined with incremental capacity (IC) analysis to evaluate the aging mechanisms including loss of lithium-ion inventory and loss of active material on the cathode and anode. By analyzing the evolution of indicator parameters and the cumulative degradation function (CDF) of the battery capacity, a non-linear degradation model with calendar and cyclic aging is established to evaluate the battery aging cost under different unmanaged charging (V0G) and V2G scenarios. The result shows that, although the extra energy throughput would cause cyclic degradation, discharging from SOC 90 to 65% by V2G will surprisingly alleviate the battery decaying by 0.95% compared to the EV charged within 90–100% SOC, due to the improvement of calendar life. By optimal charging strategies, the connection to the smart grid can potentially extend the EV battery life beyond the scenarios without V2G. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Energy Storage in Advanced Power Systems)

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19 pages, 1972 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Examining the Benefits of Using Boron Compounds in Lithium Batteries: A Comprehensive Review of Literature

by Changlin (Allen) Zheng

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100187 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 9220

Abstract

Boron and boron compounds have been extensively studied together in the history and development of lithium batteries, which are crucial to decarbonization in the automotive industry and beyond. With a wide examination of battery components, but a boron-centric approach to raw materials, this [...] Read more.

Boron and boron compounds have been extensively studied together in the history and development of lithium batteries, which are crucial to decarbonization in the automotive industry and beyond. With a wide examination of battery components, but a boron-centric approach to raw materials, this review attempts to summarize past and recent studies on the following: which boron compounds are studied in a lithium battery, in which parts of lithium batteries are they studied, what improvements are offered for battery performance, and what improvement mechanisms can be explained. The uniqueness of boron and its extensive application beyond batteries contextualizes the interesting similarity with some studies on batteries. At the end, the article aims to predict prospective trends for future studies that may lead to a more extensive use of boron compounds on a commercial scale. Full article

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20 pages, 7068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DC Bus Voltage Stabilization and SOC Management Using Optimal Tuning of Controllers for Supercapacitor Based PV Hybrid Energy Storage System

by Saswati Pattnaik, Mano Ranjan Kumar, Sunil Kumar Mishra, Shivam Prakash Gautam, Bhargav Appasani and Taha Selim Ustun

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100186 - 15 Oct 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3397

Abstract

The global initiative of decarbonization has led to the popularity of renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaic (PV) cells and energy storage systems. However, standalone battery-based energy storage systems are inefficient in terms of the shelf and cycle life, reliability, and overall performance, [...] Read more.

The global initiative of decarbonization has led to the popularity of renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaic (PV) cells and energy storage systems. However, standalone battery-based energy storage systems are inefficient in terms of the shelf and cycle life, reliability, and overall performance, especially in instantaneous variations in solar irradiance and load. In order to overcome this, a combination of a supercapacitor and battery-based hybrid energy storage system (HESS) is considered as an emerging and viable solution. The present work proposes an optimally tuned tilt-integral (TI) controller to develop an efficient power management strategy (PMS) to enhance the overall system performance. The controller parameters are tuned by optimization of the time-domain design specifications using a gradient-free simplex search technique. The robustness of the proposed TI controller is demonstrated in comparison to PI and fractional-order PI (FOPI) controllers. Furthermore, extensive experimentation was carried out to analyze the effectiveness of the proposed approach for DC bus voltage stabilization and state-of-charge (SOC) management under varying operating conditions such as solar irradiance, load, temperature, and SOC consumption by battery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Systems and Applications)

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37 pages, 4364 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electrochemically Active Polymer Components in Next-Generation LiFePO₄ Cathodes: Can Small Things Make a Big Difference?

by Irina Chepurnaya, Evgenia Smirnova and Mikhail Karushev

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100185 - 15 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4989

Abstract

As a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄, LFP) successfully transitioned from laboratory bench to commercial product but was outshone by high capacity/high voltage lithium metal oxide chemistries. Recent changes in the global economy combined with advances in [...] Read more.

As a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄, LFP) successfully transitioned from laboratory bench to commercial product but was outshone by high capacity/high voltage lithium metal oxide chemistries. Recent changes in the global economy combined with advances in the battery pack design brought industry attention back to LFP. However, well-recognized intrinsic drawbacks of LiFePO₄ such as relatively low specific capacity and poor electronic and ionic conductivity have not yet been fully mitigated. Integration of electrochemically active electron-conducting polymers (EAECPs) into the cathode structure to replace conventional auxiliary electrode components has been proposed as an effective strategy for further performance improvement of LFP batteries. In this review, we show how various combinations of polymer properties/functions have been utilized in composite LiFePO₄ electrodes containing EAECP components. We present recent advances in the cathode design, materials, and methods and highlight the impact of synthetic strategies for the cathode preparation on its electrochemical performance in lithium-ion cells. We discuss advantages and limitations of the proposed approaches as well as challenges of their adoption by the battery manufactures. We conclude with perspectives on future development in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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41 pages, 3035 KiB

Open AccessReview

Applications and Advantages of Atomic Layer Deposition for Lithium-Ion Batteries Cathodes: Review

by Yury Koshtyal, Denis Olkhovskii, Aleksander Rumyantsev and Maxim Maximov

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100184 - 15 Oct 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4830

Abstract

Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are one of the most convenient, reliable, and promising power sources for portable electronics, power tools, hybrid and electric vehicles. The characteristics of the positive electrode (cathode active material, CAM) significantly contribute to the battery’s functional properties. Applying various [...] Read more.

Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are one of the most convenient, reliable, and promising power sources for portable electronics, power tools, hybrid and electric vehicles. The characteristics of the positive electrode (cathode active material, CAM) significantly contribute to the battery’s functional properties. Applying various functional coatings is one of the productive ways to improve the work characteristics of lithium-ion batteries. Nowadays, there are many methods for depositing thin films on a material’s surface; among them, one of the most promising is atomic layer deposition (ALD). ALD allows for the formation of thin and uniform coatings on surfaces with complex geometric forms, including porous structures. This review is devoted to applying the ALD method in obtaining thin functional coatings for cathode materials and includes an overview of more than 100 publications. The most thoroughly investigated surface modifications are lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium manganese spinel (LMO), lithium nickel-cobalt-manganese oxides (NCM), lithium-nickel-manganese spinel (LNMO), and lithium-manganese rich (LMR) cathode materials. The most studied processes of deposition are aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and zirconium dioxide (ZrO₂) films. The primary purposes of such studies are to find the synthesis parameters of films, to find the optimal coating thickness (e.g., ~1–2 nm for Al₂O₃, ~1 nm for ZrO₂, <1 nm for TiO₂, etc.), and to reveal the effect of the coating on the electrochemical parameters of batteries. The review summarizes synthesis conditions, investigation results of deposited films on CAMs and positive electrodes and some functional effects observed due to films obtained by ALD on cathodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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13 pages, 2566 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Repurposing Face Masks after Use: From Wastes to Anode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries

by Silvia Porporato, Mattia Bartoli, Alessandro Piovano, Nicolò Pianta, Alberto Tagliaferro, Giuseppe Antonio Elia, Riccardo Ruffo and Claudio Gerbaldi

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100183 - 14 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2889

Abstract

Nowadays, face masks play an essential role in limiting coronavirus diffusion. However, their disposable nature represents a relevant environmental issue. In this work, we propose the utilization of two types of disposed (waste) face masks to prepare hard carbons (biochar) by pyrolytic conversion [...] Read more.

Nowadays, face masks play an essential role in limiting coronavirus diffusion. However, their disposable nature represents a relevant environmental issue. In this work, we propose the utilization of two types of disposed (waste) face masks to prepare hard carbons (biochar) by pyrolytic conversion in mild conditions. Moreover, we evaluated the application of the produced hard carbons as anode materials in Na-ion batteries. Pristine face masks were firstly analyzed through infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The pyrolysis of both mask types resulted in highly disordered carbons, as revealed by field-emission scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy, with a very low specific surface area. Anodes prepared with these carbons were tested in laboratory-scale Na-metal cells through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic cycling, displaying an acceptable specific capacity along a wide range of current regimes, with a good coulombic efficiency (>98% over at least 750 cycles). As a proof of concept, the anodes were also used to assemble a Na-ion cell in combination with a Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃ (NVPF) cathode and tested towards galvanostatic cycling, with an initial capacity of almost 120 mAhg⁻¹ (decreasing at about 47 mAhg⁻¹ after 50 cycles). Even though further optimization is required for a real application, the achieved electrochemical performances represent a preliminary confirmation of the possibility of repurposing disposable face masks into higher-value materials for Na-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers to Celebrate the First Impact Factor of Batteries)

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16 pages, 4292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of TiFe-Based Electrodes Using High-Energy Ball Mill with Mn Additive for NiMH Batteries

by Amir Zali, Seyed Farshid Kashani-Bozorg, Zahra Lalegani and Bejan Hamawandi

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100182 - 14 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1845

Abstract

Binary and ternary (with the addition of Mn) TiFe-based intermetallic compound powders were fabricated by high energy ball milling, and their electrochemical behavior as negative electrodes was investigated in 6M-KOH. X-ray diffraction exhibited the single phase of nanostructured binary and ternary TiFe-based crystallites [...] Read more.

Binary and ternary (with the addition of Mn) TiFe-based intermetallic compound powders were fabricated by high energy ball milling, and their electrochemical behavior as negative electrodes was investigated in 6M-KOH. X-ray diffraction exhibited the single phase of nanostructured binary and ternary TiFe-based crystallites after 20 h of milling followed the amorphous phase formation. Addition of Mn increased peak broadening and in turn decreased the nanocrystallite size of TiFe. Electrode properties of 20, 40, 60, and 70 h binary milled products showed that the discharge capacity of the 60 h one offered a maximum discharge capacity of ~169 mAhg⁻¹. Although substitution of Mn for Ti (Ti_1−xFeMn_x, x = 0.1, 0.2) caused a decrease in initial discharge capacity, the periodic stability increased compared to the binary TiFe and ternary TiFe_1-xMn_x (x = 0.1, 0.2). The ternary Ti_0.9FeMn_0.1 electrode maintained ~53% of its initial discharge capacity after five cycles of charge–discharge; this was just 28% in the case of binary TiFe electrode. Full article

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12 pages, 4549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One-Pot Spray Engineering to Design Na_0.44MnO₂ Cathode Electrodes for High-Rate and Cycle-Stable Na-Ion Batteries

by Bon-Ryul Koo, Young-Geun Lee, Sang Ho Lee, Geon-Hyoung An and Chun Huang

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100181 - 14 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2173

Abstract

To improve the practical performance of Na-ion batteries, electrode structure engineering provides a new route to improve the electrochemical efficiency of the cathode active material. In this study, we suggest a new route of one-pot spray engineering to design Na_0.44MnO₂ [...] Read more.

To improve the practical performance of Na-ion batteries, electrode structure engineering provides a new route to improve the electrochemical efficiency of the cathode active material. In this study, we suggest a new route of one-pot spray engineering to design Na_0.44MnO₂ cathodes to realize high-rate and cycle-stable Na-ion battery performance. This technique adjusts the electrode structure from a dense to an open sponge-like morphology during layer-by-layer deposition of the materials. The sponge-like cathode results in improved ion insertion and transport kinetics, thus accelerating the rate capability with increased capacity and high-rate cycling capability (100.1 mAh/g and 90.2% cycling retention after 100 cycles at 5 C). These results highlight the potential for design engineering of cathode structures to achieve high-rate and cycle-stable performance for Na-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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23 pages, 5649 KiB

Open AccessReview

Aqueous Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries: From Liquid to Hydrogel

by Mingrui Yang, Jun Luo, Xiaoniu Guo, Jiacheng Chen, Yuliang Cao and Weihua Chen

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100180 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4709

Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries stand out as a promising technology for developing a new generation of energy storage devices because of their apparent advantages in terms of costs and resources. Aqueous electrolytes, which are flame-resistant, inexpensive, and environmentally acceptable, are receiving a lot of attention [...] Read more.

Sodium-ion batteries stand out as a promising technology for developing a new generation of energy storage devices because of their apparent advantages in terms of costs and resources. Aqueous electrolytes, which are flame-resistant, inexpensive, and environmentally acceptable, are receiving a lot of attention in light of the present environmental and electronic equipment safety concerns. In recent decades, numerous improvements have been made to the performance of aqueous sodium-ion batteries (ASIBs). One particular development has been the transition from liquid to hydrogel electrolytes, whose durability, flexibility, and leakproof properties are eagerly anticipated in the next generation of flexible wearable electronics. The current review examines the most recent developments in the investigation and development of the electrolytes and associated electrode materials of ASIBs. An overview of new discoveries based on cycle stability, electrochemical performance, and morphology is presented along with previously published data. Additionally, the main milestones, applications, and challenges of this field are briefly discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries)

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20 pages, 7267 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Integrated All-Climate Heating/Cooling System Design and Preheating Strategy for Lithium-Ion Battery Pack

by Xiaogang Wu, Zhixin Wei, Yizhao Sun, Jinlei Sun and Jiuyu Du

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100179 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3494

Abstract

The continuous low temperature in winter is the main factor limiting the popularity of electric vehicles in cold regions. The best way to solve this problem is by preheating power battery packs. Power battery packs have relatively high requirements with regard to the [...] Read more.

The continuous low temperature in winter is the main factor limiting the popularity of electric vehicles in cold regions. The best way to solve this problem is by preheating power battery packs. Power battery packs have relatively high requirements with regard to the uniformity of temperature distribution during the preheating process. Aimed at this problem, taking a 30 Ah LiFePO4 (LFP) pouch battery as the research object, a three-sided liquid cooling structure that takes into account the preheating of the battery module was designed. On the basis of analyzing the influence of the cooling plate arrangement, cooling liquid flow rate, liquid medium, and inlet temperature on the temperature consistency of the battery module, the orthogonal simulation method was used to formulate the optimal combination of factors for different cooling objectives. Using the designed preheating structure, a combined internal and external preheating strategy based on the available battery power is proposed. The research results show that the cooling plate arrangement scheme and the inlet temperature have obvious influences on the preheating effect, while the increase in the flow velocity of the preheating effect is saturated. The optimized external preheating structure can maintain the preheating temperature difference of the battery module at less than 5 °C. On this basis, the proposed combined internal and external preheating strategy saves 50% of the preheating time compared with three-sided preheating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Battery Energy Storage and Applications)

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15 pages, 6354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Equalization Topology for Battery Management Systems Applied to an Electric Vehicle Model

by José Rodolfo Galvão, Lucas Braggião Calligaris, Kawe Monteiro de Souza, Joelton Deonei Gotz, Paulo Broniera Junior and Fernanda Cristina Corrêa

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100178 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3546

Abstract

This paper presents a hybrid equalization (EQ) topology of lithium-ion batteries (LIB). Currently, LIBs are widely used for electric mobility due to their characteristics of high energy density and multiple recharge cycles. In an electric vehicle (EV), these batteries are connected in series [...] Read more.

This paper presents a hybrid equalization (EQ) topology of lithium-ion batteries (LIB). Currently, LIBs are widely used for electric mobility due to their characteristics of high energy density and multiple recharge cycles. In an electric vehicle (EV), these batteries are connected in series and/or parallel until the engine reaches the voltage and energy capacity required. For LIBs to operate safely, a battery management system (BMS) is required. This system monitors and controls voltage, current, and temperature parameters. Among the various functions of a BMS, voltage equalization is of paramount importance for the safety and useful life of LIBs. There are two main voltage equalization techniques: passive and active. Passive equalization dissipates energy, and active equalization transfers energy between the LIBs. The passive has the advantage of being simple to implement; however, it has a longer equalization time and energy loss. Active is complex to implement but has fast equalization time and lower energy loss. This paper proposes the combination of these two techniques to implement simultaneously to control a pack of LIBs, equalizing voltage between stacks and at the cell level. For this purpose, a pack of LIBs was simulated with sixty-four cells connected in series and divided into eight stacks with eight battery cells each. The rated voltage of each cell is 3.7 V, with a capacity of 106 Ah. The total pack has a voltage of 236.8 V and 25 kW. Some LIBs were fitted with different SOC values to simulate an imbalance between cells. In the simulations, different topologies were evaluated: passive and active topology at the cell level and combined active and passive equalization at the pack level. Results are compared as a response time and state of charge (SOC) level. In addition, equalization topologies are applied in an EV model with the FTP75 conduction cycle. In this way, it is possible to evaluate the autonomy of each equalization technique simulated in this work. The hybrid topology active at the stack level and passive at the module level showed promising results in equalization time and autonomy compared with a purely active or passive equalization technique. This combination is a solution to achieve low EQ time and satisfactory SOC when compared to a strictly active or passive EQ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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20 pages, 5682 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Simulation, Set-Up, and Thermal Characterization of a Water-Cooled Li-Ion Battery System

by Max Feinauer, Nils Uhlmann, Carlos Ziebert and Thomas Blank

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100177 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4350

Abstract

A constant and homogenous temperature control of Li-ion batteries is essential for a good performance, a safe operation, and a low aging rate. Especially when operating a battery with high loads in dense battery systems, a cooling system is required to keep the [...] Read more.

A constant and homogenous temperature control of Li-ion batteries is essential for a good performance, a safe operation, and a low aging rate. Especially when operating a battery with high loads in dense battery systems, a cooling system is required to keep the cell in a controlled temperature range. Therefore, an existing battery module is set up with a water-based liquid cooling system with aluminum cooling plates. A finite-element simulation is used to optimize the design and arrangement of the cooling plates regarding power consumption, cooling efficiency, and temperature homogeneity. The heat generation of an operating Li-ion battery is described by the lumped battery model, which is integrated into COMSOL Multiphysics. As the results show, a small set of non-destructively determined parameters of the lumped battery model is sufficient to estimate heat generation. The simulated temperature distribution within the battery pack confirmed adequate cooling and good temperature homogeneity as measured by an integrated temperature sensor array. Furthermore, the simulation reveals sufficient cooling of the batteries by using only one cooling plate per two pouch cells while continuously discharging at up to 3 C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal, and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells II)

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14 pages, 4592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crest Factor Optimization for Multisine Excitation Signals with Logarithmic Frequency Distribution Based on a Hybrid Stochastic-Deterministic Optimization Algorithm

by Ahmed Yahia Kallel and Olfa Kanoun

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100176 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3283

Abstract

For diagnosis of batteries and fuel cells based on impedance spectroscopy, excitation signals are required, including low frequencies down to the mHz range. This leads to a long measurement time and compromises the stability condition for impedance spectroscopy. Multisine excitation signals with logarithmic [...] Read more.

For diagnosis of batteries and fuel cells based on impedance spectroscopy, excitation signals are required, including low frequencies down to the mHz range. This leads to a long measurement time and compromises the stability condition for impedance spectroscopy. Multisine excitation signals with logarithmic frequency distribution can significantly reduce the measurement time but need optimization of the crest factor to realize a high signal-to-noise ratio at all excitation frequencies and maintain at the same time the linearity and stability conditions of impedance spectroscopy. Crest factor optimization is challenging, as the obtained results strongly depend on the initial phase values and many trials are necessary. It takes a very long time and can not be easily performed automatically up to now. In this paper, we propose a time-efficient hybrid stochastic-deterministic crest factor optimization method for multisine signals with logarithmic frequency distribution. A sigmoid transform on the multisine signal gradually transforms the multi-frequency signal into a binary-alike signal. The crest factor is significantly decreased, but the phases of the singular frequency signals remain sub-optimal. Further optimization based on the Gauss-Newton algorithm can determine the final phases, realizing a lower crest factor. The proposed method is less sensitive to initial phase values and provides more reasonable results in a reasonable time. The validation on a Samsung INR-18650-25R Lithium-ion battery cell shows that the crest factor of the optimized multisine signals has a median of 3.62 ± 0.7 within 6 min of run time, which is significantly better than the best previous work in the state-of-the-art of 3.85 ± 0.11 for the same run time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers to Celebrate the First Impact Factor of Batteries)

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12 pages, 5605 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SiO₂-Alginate-Based Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Zinc-Ion Batteries

by Peishu Tian, Xin Zhong, Caiting Gu, Zhe Wang and Fengwei Shi

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100175 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3601

Abstract

Aqueous Zn-ion batteries (AZIBs) are quite promising energy sources. However, aqueous electrolytes present many challenges such as hydrolysis reactions, liquid leakage, Zn dendrites, and interfacial side reactions. To solve the above problems of aqueous electrolytes, in this study, a kind of SiO₂ [...] Read more.

Aqueous Zn-ion batteries (AZIBs) are quite promising energy sources. However, aqueous electrolytes present many challenges such as hydrolysis reactions, liquid leakage, Zn dendrites, and interfacial side reactions. To solve the above problems of aqueous electrolytes, in this study, a kind of SiO₂-sodium alginate gel polymer electrolyte (SiO₂-SA GPE) is prepared through a one-pot method. The SiO₂-SA GPE possessed high ionic conductivity of 1.144 × 10⁻² S·cm⁻¹ and perfect mechanical strength. The Zn//LiFePO₄ batteries assembled with SiO₂-SA GPE delivered a high discharge specific capacity of 89.9 mAh g⁻¹ (capacity retention = 74.9%) after 300 cycles at 1 C, which was much better than traditional liquid electrolytes (residual discharge capacity = 79.2 mAh g⁻¹). Results of the rate performance and long cycle life of AZIBs proved that SiO₂-SA GPE could effectively prevent zinc dendrites and side reactions, providing a feasible strategy for improving the performance of AZIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zn-Ion and Zn–Air Batteries: Materials, Mechanisms and Applications)

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15 pages, 4651 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Cell-Internal Contacting of Prismatic Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Micro-Friction Stir Spot Welding

by Martina E. Sigl, Sophie Grabmann, Luca-Felix Kick, Amanda Zens, Roman Hartl and Michael F. Zaeh

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100174 - 10 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3562

Abstract

The reliable production of high-quality lithium-ion battery components still poses a challenge, which must be met to cope with their rising demand. One key step in the production sequence is the process of cell-internal contacting, during which the electrode carrier foils of the [...] Read more.

The reliable production of high-quality lithium-ion battery components still poses a challenge, which must be met to cope with their rising demand. One key step in the production sequence is the process of cell-internal contacting, during which the electrode carrier foils of the anode and the cathode are joined with the arrester. This is usually done with ultrasonic or laser beam welding. Both joining processes, however, show limitations concerning the quality of the weld. This paper presents a new approach for cell-internal contacting by using micro-friction stir spot welding. Welding experiments were conducted in which joints with high mechanical strengths were produced. It was also shown that large stacks with foil numbers of 100 can be joined in only a few tenths of a second. The process is therefore especially of interest for the fast production of large-scale battery cells or other new types of high-energy-dense battery cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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10 pages, 2744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Lithium Salt Concentration on Materials Characteristics and Electrochemical Performance of Hybrid Inorganic/Polymer Solid Electrolyte for Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Debabrata Mohanty, Shu-Yu Chen and I-Ming Hung

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100173 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4852

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries are popular energy storage devices due to their high energy density. Solid electrolytes appear to be a potential replacement for flammable liquid electrolytes in lithium batteries. This inorganic/hybrid solid electrolyte is a composite of lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) salt, (poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoro propylene) [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries are popular energy storage devices due to their high energy density. Solid electrolytes appear to be a potential replacement for flammable liquid electrolytes in lithium batteries. This inorganic/hybrid solid electrolyte is a composite of lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) salt, (poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoro propylene) (PVDF-HFP) polymer and sodium superionic conductor (NASICON)-type Li_1+xAl_xTi_2−x(PO₄)₃ (LATP) ceramic powder. The structure, morphology, mechanical behavior, and electrochemical performance of this composite solid electrolyte, based on various amounts of LiTFSI, were investigated. The lithium-ion transfer and conductivity increased as the LiTFSI lithium salt concentration increased. However, the mechanical strength apparently decreased once the percentage of LITFSI was over 60%. The hybrid electrolyte with 60% LiTFSI content showed high ionic conductivity of 2.14 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹, a wide electrochemical stability window (3–6 V) and good electrochemical stability. The capacity of the Li|60% LiTFSI/PVDF-HFP/LATP| LiFePO₄ solid-state lithium-metal battery was 103.8 mA h g⁻¹ at 0.1 C, with a high-capacity retention of 98% after 50 cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anode and Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries)

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11 pages, 8456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Modulation of Zn Doped VO₂(B) Nanorods with Improved Electrochemical Properties towards High Performance Aqueous Batteries

by Dewei Liu, Qijie Zhang, Xiaohong Chen, Haiyang Dai, Xuezhen Zhai, Jing Chen, Gaoshang Gong, Cui Shang and Xuzhe Wang

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100172 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2058

Abstract

Vanadium dioxide with monoclinic structure is theoretically a promising layered cathode material for aqueous metal-ion batteries due to its excellent specific capacity. However, its poor cycling stability limits its application as an electrode material. In this study, a series of Zn-doped VO₂ [...] Read more.

Vanadium dioxide with monoclinic structure is theoretically a promising layered cathode material for aqueous metal-ion batteries due to its excellent specific capacity. However, its poor cycling stability limits its application as an electrode material. In this study, a series of Zn-doped VO₂ (V_1−xZn_xO₂) nanorods were successfully fabricated by the technology of one-step hydrothermal synthesis. The XRD result indicated that there was a slight lattice distortion caused by doped Zn²⁺ with a larger ion radius. The positron lifetime spectrum showed that there were vacancy cluster defects in all the samples. The electrochemical measurement demonstrated the enhancement of the specific capacitance of V_1−xZn_xO₂ electrodes compared with the undoped sample. In addition, the discharge capacitance of the sample remained around 86% after 1000 charge/discharge cycles. This work proves that Zn²⁺ doping is a valid tactic for the application of nano-VO₂(B) in energy storage electrode materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Interface Designs for Batteries)

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23 pages, 4250 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Li-Ion Battery Short-Circuit Protection by Voltage-Driven Switchable Resistance Polymer Layer

by Evgenii V. Beletskii, Elena V. Alekseeva, Dmitrii V. Anishchenko and Oleg V. Levin

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100171 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4374

Abstract

Safety issues with lithium-ion batteries prevent their widespread use in critical areas of technology. Various types of protective systems have been proposed to prevent thermal runaway and subsequent battery combustion. Among them, thermoresistive systems, representing polymer composites that sharply increase their resistance when [...] Read more.

Safety issues with lithium-ion batteries prevent their widespread use in critical areas of technology. Various types of protective systems have been proposed to prevent thermal runaway and subsequent battery combustion. Among them, thermoresistive systems, representing polymer composites that sharply increase their resistance when the temperature rises, have been actively investigated. However, they are triggered only when the heating of the battery has already occurred, i.e., the system undergoes irreversible changes. This paper describes a new type of protective polymer layer based on the intrinsically conducting polymer poly[Ni(CH₃OSalen)]. The response mechanism of this layer is based on an increase in resistance both when heated and when the cell voltage exceeds the permissible range. This makes it possible to stop undesirable processes at an earlier stage. The properties of the polymer itself and of the lithium-ion batteries modified by the protective layer have been studied. It is shown that the introduction of the polymer protective layer into the battery design leads to a rapid increase of the internal resistance at short circuit, which reduces the discharge current and sharply reduces the heat release. The effectiveness of the protection is confirmed by analysis of the battery components before the short circuit and after it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers to Celebrate the First Impact Factor of Batteries)

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13 pages, 3568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of SOC Estimation by the Ampere-Hour Integral Method with Capacity Correction Based on LSTM

by Xin Zhang, Jiawei Hou, Zekun Wang and Yueqiu Jiang

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100170 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5124

Abstract

The estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of a battery’s power is one of the key technologies in a battery management system (BMS). As a common SOC estimation method, the traditional ampere-hour integral method regards the actual capacity of the battery, which [...] Read more.

The estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of a battery’s power is one of the key technologies in a battery management system (BMS). As a common SOC estimation method, the traditional ampere-hour integral method regards the actual capacity of the battery, which is constantly changed by the usage conditions and environment, as a constant for calculation, which may cause errors in the results of SOC estimation. Considering the above problems, this paper proposes an improved ampere-hour integral method based on the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network model. The LSTM network model is used to obtain the actual battery capacity variation, replacing the fixed value of battery capacity in the traditional ampere-hour integral method and optimizing the traditional ampere-hour integral method to improve the accuracy of the SOC estimation method. The experimental results show that the errors of the results obtained by the improved ampere-hour integral method for the SOC estimation are all less than 10%, which proves that the proposed design method is feasible and effective. Full article

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18 pages, 5362 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Smart Battery Technology for Lifetime Improvement

by Remus Teodorescu, Xin Sui, Søren B. Vilsen, Pallavi Bharadwaj, Abhijit Kulkarni and Daniel-Ioan Stroe

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100169 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6140

Abstract

Applications of lithium-ion batteries are widespread, ranging from electric vehicles to energy storage systems. In spite of nearly meeting the target in terms of energy density and cost, enhanced safety, lifetime, and second-life applications, there remain challenges. As a result of the difference [...] Read more.

Applications of lithium-ion batteries are widespread, ranging from electric vehicles to energy storage systems. In spite of nearly meeting the target in terms of energy density and cost, enhanced safety, lifetime, and second-life applications, there remain challenges. As a result of the difference between the electric characteristics of the cells, the degradation process is accelerated for battery packs containing many cells. The development of new generation battery solutions for transportation and grid storage with improved performance is the goal of this paper, which introduces the novel concept of Smart Battery that brings together batteries with advanced power electronics and artificial intelligence (AI). The key feature is a bypass device attached to each cell that can insert relaxation time to individual cell operation with minimal effect on the load. An advanced AI-based performance optimizer is trained to recognize early signs of accelerated degradation modes and to decide upon the optimal insertion of relaxation time. The resulting pulsed current operation has been proven to extend lifetime by up to 80% in laboratory aging conditions. The Smart Battery unique architecture uses a digital twin to accelerate the training of performance optimizers and predict failures. The Smart Battery technology is a new technology currently at the proof-of-concept stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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15 pages, 3095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation between Lithium Titanium Oxide Powder Morphology and High Rate Performance in Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Hermes A. Llaín-Jiménez, Dominika A. Buchberger, Magdalena Winkowska-Struzik, Maciej Ratyński, Michał Krajewski, Maciej Boczar, Bartosz Hamankiewicz and Andrzej Czerwiński

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100168 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2915

Abstract

This study determined the measurable factor responsible for the high rate performance of lithium titanium oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, LTO) powders in lithium-ion batteries. The structural and morphological properties of various Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ materials and [...] Read more.

This study determined the measurable factor responsible for the high rate performance of lithium titanium oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, LTO) powders in lithium-ion batteries. The structural and morphological properties of various Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ materials and their correlation with electrochemical performance were analysed. The results showed that there was a strong correlation between high capacity retention at 10 C and the specific surface area. Other electrochemical and structural factors, such as the crystal size and pore structure, were not correlated with 10 C performance. We found that an increase in the specific surface area of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ above c.a. 15 m² g⁻¹ neither improved the high rate capacity retention nor its specific discharge capacity at high current rates. We also showed that the sol–gel synthesized lithium titanium oxide powders could retain similar or higher discharge specific capacities than materials synthesized via more complex routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Li-Ion Battery Materials: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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29 pages, 3107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of On-Board Hybrid Energy Storage Devices on Energy-Saving Operation for Electric Trains in DC Railway Systems

by Bolun Zhang, Shaofeng Lu, Yang Peng, Chaoxian Wu, Guangzhao Meng, Minling Feng and Bingjian Liu

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100167 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

To improve the energy-efficiency of transport systems, it is necessary to investigate electric trains with on-board hybrid energy storage devices (HESDs), which are applied to assist the traction and recover the regenerative energy. In this paper, a time-based mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model [...] Read more.

To improve the energy-efficiency of transport systems, it is necessary to investigate electric trains with on-board hybrid energy storage devices (HESDs), which are applied to assist the traction and recover the regenerative energy. In this paper, a time-based mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model is proposed to obtain the energy-saving operation for electric trains with different constraints of on-board HESDs, such as their capacity, initial state of charge (SOC), and level of degradation. The proposed integrated power flow model based on the train longitudinal dynamics, power split of on-board HESDs, and line impedance is discretized and linearized, aiming to minimize the net energy consumption (NEC). The results reveal that on-board HESDs with a higher capacity does not necessarily lead to a higher energy-saving rate; a lower or excessive initial SOC could undermine the energy-saving potential; considering the long-term train operation, the degradation of the Li-ion battery will influence the energy-saving operation for electric trains, as well as result in an energy-saving rate that ranges from 41.57% to 31.90%. The practical data from Guangzhou Metro Line 7 were applied in the simulations, which enhanced the practicality and effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

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