Next Article in Journal
Phytochemical Composition and Effects of Aqueous Extracts from Moringa oleifera Leaves on In Vitro Ruminal Fermentation Parameters
Next Article in Special Issue
Effects of Capsicum oleoresin on the Growth Performance, Nutrient Digestibility and Meat Quality of Fattening Beef Cattle
Previous Article in Journal
Effects of Monensin, Calcareous Algae, and Essential Oils on Performance, Carcass Traits, and Methane Emissions Across Different Breeds of Feedlot-Finished Beef Cattle
Previous Article in Special Issue
Supplementing Forage with Traditional Chinese Medicine Can Increase Microbial Protein Synthesis in Sheep
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Ruminants
Volume 5
Issue 1
10.3390/ruminants5010003
ruminants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effect of Calcium Propionate and Chromium-Methionine Supplementation: Growth Performance, Body Fat Reserves, and Blood Parameters of High-Risk Beef Calves

by
Oliver Yaotzin Sánchez-Barbosa
1,
Octavio Carrillo-Muro
1,*,†,
Pedro Hernández-Briano
1,*,†,
Daniel Rodríguez-Cordero
1,
Alejandro Rivera-Villegas
1,
Alfredo Estrada-Angulo
2,
Alejandro Plascencia
2 and
Rosalba Lazalde-Cruz
3
1
Unidad Académica de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, General Enrique Estrada 98500, Mexico
2
Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán 80260, Mexico
3
Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Mexicali 21100, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Ruminants 2025, 5(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5010003
Submission received: 16 December 2024 / Revised: 9 January 2025 / Accepted: 16 January 2025 / Published: 17 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrients and Feed Additives in Ruminants)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Simple Summary

Much of the cattle received in feedlots are considered “high-risk”, and in the first weeks of their arrival they have low feed intake, presenting a negative energy balance, reducing body fat reserves, and thus negatively influencing their immune system. For that reason, it is necessary to (1) increase the energy density of the diet with the supplementation of calcium propionate (CaPr) or (2) improve the insulin response with the inclusion of chromium (Cr). Therefore, the effect of CaPr and Cr, as well as the possible synergy, were evaluated in this study. The results indicate that supplementation with CaPr or Cr improves growth performance, dietary energetics, and body fat reserves, but CaPr + Cr did not surpass these results.

Abstract

Energy availability is a critical point in newly received calves. This study was conducted to examine the effect of daily calcium propionate (CaPr), chromium-methionine (Cr-Met), or CaPr plus Cr-Met (CaPr + Cr-Met) supplementation on growth performance, dietary energetics, body fat reserves, serum metabolites, and hematological responses in high-risk beef calves. Forty-eight crossbred bull calves (148.7 ± 2.05 kg body weight) were involved in a fully randomized experimental design. Calves which were individually pen allocated (12 repetitions/treatment) were subjected to one of the following treatments daily over 56 d: (1) Control, no additives; (2) CaPr, 19 g CaPr; (3) Cr-Met, 4 g Cr-Met; and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met, 19 g CaPr plus 4 g Cr-Met. Compared to controls, feed additive supplementation alone or in combination did not modify dry matter intake (DMI), but increased average daily gain (ADG), improving the ADG/DMI ratio. However, no synergistic effect on dietary energy utilization efficiency was observed with the combination of CaPr and Cr-Met; individual supplementation proved more effective. Because of the magnitude of the effects of Cr-Met on the efficiency of dietary energy utilization, this resulted in an increase (p < 0.05) in rump fat thickness (RFT). The supplementation of CaPr + Cr-Met decreased ALB/GLO ratio, MPV, and RBC, but increased TCHO, GLU, and MCH (p > 0.05). It is concluded that supplementation with CaPr or Cr-Met independently is an effective strategy to improve growth performance, energy utilization and retention, and body fat reserves, without adverse effects on health among high-risk beef calves.

1. Introduction

Low dry matter intake (DMI) at the calf reception stage is the main challenge in the feedlot during the first weeks of arrival. Low feed intakes promote a negative energy balance, making it difficult to recover the original weight and reducing body fat reserves [1]. Energy is a key nutritional element for the immune system [2]. Therefore, in low-intake calves, the immune system is weakened, increasing the risk of high morbidity rate presentation [3]. In this regard, in calves with such a history, Snowder et al. [4] reported that up to 60% of newly arrived cattle presented clinical symptoms of complex respiratory bovine. Increasing the dietary energy density or improving the efficiency of dietary energy utilization are strategies that facilitate a positive energy balance during periods of low-feed intake, thus improving growth performance and health [5,6,7,8,9].
In regard to strategies to improve dietary energy utilization, supplementary chromium (Cr) increases insulin signaling, altering glucose and protein metabolism and affecting the protein: fat ratio in tissue composition, thus boosting feed efficiency [10,11,12]. In addition, supplementing the diet with Cr has been reported to alleviate stress in newly received cattle, primarily by enhancing antioxidant properties, improving insulin function, and optimizing energy metabolism. This results in increased energy reserves that help animals cope with adverse conditions [13,14]. In cattle fattening under favorable ambient conditions, supplemental organic Cr (as Cr enriched live yeast) at a dose of 1 to 1.15 mg/kg of diet improved the dietary net energy from 8 to 14% in feedlot cattle [15]. It is well known that organic forms of Cr (such as Cr-Met) are more available than inorganic forms [16,17]. The most extensively studied organic forms have been Cr yeast and Cr propionate, which have shown positive effects on growth and health [18,19,20,21]. However, separating the effects of the live yeast or propionate from the effects of Cr in those experiments is difficult. Surprisingly, research on the efficacy of Cr-Met supplementation in high-risk beef calves is quite limited.
On the other hand, enhancing the energy density of diets by supplementing the gluconeogenic precursor calcium propionate (CaPr) is currently an option. Increases in average daily gain (ADG, 13.3%), ADG/DMI ratio (16.7%), and body fat reserves (21%) have been observed in new-arrival calves supplemented daily with 20 g CaPr over the course of 56 d [8,9].
Increasing energy availability from diet via CaPr supplementation and facilitating improvement in metabolizable energy and N retention via Cr-Met supplementation could have a synergistic effect in newly arrived calves. Consequently, it is relevant to determine if the combination of CaPr and Cr-Met could lead to higher energy utilization and health status in calves under new arrival conditions. Hence, the objective of this study was to examine the impact of supplementing CaPr and Cr-Met separately, as well as their combination on growth performance, dietary energy, body fat reserves, serum metabolites, and hematological responses in high-risk beef calves supplemented over the course of 56 d following their arrival.

2. Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out in the Torunos Livestock Preconditioning Center, the Grupo Exportador Pa Lante S.P.R. de R.L., in Fresnillo, Zacatecas, Mexico (23°08′56.22″ N and 102°43′48.57″ W), 2081 m above sea level with a semi-dry temperate climate. During the course of the experiment, the temperature averaged 24.3 °C. All animal care and handling techniques followed protocols approved by the Institutional Bioethics and Animal Welfare Committee (Protocol # 14 May 2024) of the Unidad Académica de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia at the Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas (UAMVZ-UAZ); furthermore, they were conducted in accordance with the Official Mexican norms for animal care [22,23]. The blood samples to determine hemogram and serum metabolites were processed at the Laboratorio de Análisis Clínicos Veterinarios of the UAZ-UAMVZ.

2.1. Animal Processing, Housing, and Feeding

The bull calves involved in this study met the high-risk criteria outlined by Carrillo-Muro et al. [24,25]: (1) unknown health and management background; (2) weight at arrival between 150 and 200 kg; (3) age between 5 and 7 months; (4) weaned for a maximum of 14 d; (5) exposed to handling and transportation; (6) co-mingled with calves from different sources; and (7) unvaccinated upon arrival to feedlot. Ninety-seven recently weaned crossbred bull calves were acquired from various sources and transported roughly 120 km (a four-hour truck journey) to the Torunos Livestock Preconditioning Center on 6 June 2024 for inclusion in this research. Upon arrival, calves (approximately 6 mo of age) were vaccinated for clostridials and Mannheimia haemolytica (Biovac 11 Vías®, Biozoo, Jalisco, Mexico), treated against parasites (% ivermectin, Master LP® injectable, Ourofino Salud Animal, São Paulo, Brazil), administered metaphylactic treatment with oxytetracycline (5 mg/kg BW; Emicina® líquida, Zoetis, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico), and were individually weighed (initial body weight, IBW; electronic scale; Metrology® PBG-3000, cap. 2000 kg, Básculas y Accesorios de Peso SA de CV, Nuevo León, México). Following the evaluation and health management procedures, 49 calves were removed from the experiment because of their low initial body weight (IBW) or behavioral problems, leading to a final cohort of 48 calves for the study (n = 48, 12 calves per treatment), which had an average IBW of 148.7 ± 2.05 kg. Utilizing the processed IBW, calves were randomly assigned to 48 pens (12 pens/treatment; 1 calf/pen). Pens were 3.14 m × 5.25 m, unshaded, and equipped with waterers and line feed bunks. All calves were observed twice daily for signs of lameness or morbidity, including depression, nasal or ocular discharge, and anorexia. Throughout the study, there were no instances of morbidity or mortality.

2.2. Treatments and Diets

Dietary treatments were evaluated for 56 d (calf/d): (1) Control, no additives; (2) CaPr, 19 g CaPr; (3) Cr-Met, 4 g Cr-Met; and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met, 19 g CaPr + 4 g Cr-Met. The dose of CaPr was calculated based on the proportion of propionic acid of the product, taken as a reference from Rodríguez Cordero et al. [8] and Rivera-Villegas et al. [9], who used a dose of 20 g/calf/d of a product containing 69% propionic acid (69% × 20 g = 13.80 g propionic acid/calf/d). The product used in the present study (Propical® Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Mexico City, Mexico) contained 73% propionic acid (73% × 19 g = 13.87 g propionic acid/calf/d); therefore, the dose was set at 19 g/calf/d. The supplemental Cr-Met source used was MiCroPlex® 1000 (Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA), containing Cr-Met 1000 ppm (Figure 1).
The diet was formulated to contain 145.1 g kg−1 DM of crude protein and provide 0.98 Mcal/net energy for gain (NEg); the diet included 500 g kg−1 DM roughage, which included mature alfalfa hay and oats hay, along with cracked corn grain and soybean meal (Table 1). The dietary formulation was enhanced with microminerals and vitamins to fulfil NASEM [7] requirements for receiving bull calves.
To guarantee that the treated group received the complete dosage, the doses were combined with 100 g of the basal diet and offered at 800 and 1600 h. If there was any leftover portion after the calves consumed their initial servings, it was then given to them. Fresh feed was supplied three times a day at 800, 1200, and 1600 h. Each morning, about 30 min before the morning feeding, the bunk feeders were examined to evaluate the intake from the previous day. Any leftover feed was taken out, weighed, and documented. These data were subsequently utilized to adjust the 1600 h feed to ensure that the refusal rate was below approximately 100 g per calf, while the amounts offered at 800 and 1200 h remained unchanged.

2.3. Calculations

Samples of feed were collected every day for dry matter (DM) analysis AOAC [26]. To assess the effects of treatments on growth performance, calves were weighed at the beginning (0 d) and conclusion of the experiment (56 d). The following overall measurements were considered: (1) Average daily gain (ADG) = [(Final weight − Initial weight)/56 d], expressed in kg per day; (2) Dry matter intake (DMI) = (Feed given − Feed not consumed), which was weighed and logged daily, expressed in kg per day; and (3) ADG/DMI ratio = (ADG/DMI).
Net energy (NE) needed for maintenance (NEm) was determined using the quadratic formula outlined by Zinn et al. [27], where NEm = −b ± √(b2 − 4ac)/2c. In this formula, a = −0.41 × EM; b = (0.877 × EM) + (0.41 × DMI) + EG; and c = −0.877 × EM, with EM representing the energy requirement for maintenance and EG indicating the energy requirement for gain. The energy requirement for maintenance (EM, Mcal/d) was calculated using EM = 0.077 × SBW0.75, where SBW (initial shrunk body weight) equaled average BW × 0.96 [28], while the energy requirement for gain (EG, Mcal/d) was estimated using the equation 0.0557 × SBW0.75 × ADG1.097 [7,28]. The performance-calculated NEg was then derived from NEm (NEg = 0.877 × NEm − 0.41), as previously noted by Zinn et al. [27]. The anticipated DMI was calculated based on the observed ADG, average SBW, and the estimated NE values of the diet (Table 1) using the following formula: expected DMI, kg/d = (EM/NEm) + (EG/NEg), where NEm and NEg are the tabulated NE values of the diet based on its formulation [7]. The efficiency of dietary energy use during growth performance trials was assessed through the ratio of observed to expected dietary NE.

2.4. Body Fat Reserves and Longissimus Muscle Area

The following measurements were made: (1) longissimus muscle area (LMA), measured in cm2; (2) 12th rib fat thickness (FAT), which represented subcutaneous fat over the longissimus dorsi muscle, measured in mm, wherein both measurements were taken between the 12th and 13th ribs; and (3) rump fat thickness (RFT) at the p8 site, measured in mm. These measurements were obtained through ultrasonography on days 0 and 56. The measurements were consistently performed by the same operator using a real-time scanner equipped with a linear array transducer of 3.5 MHz (Aloka Prosound 2 instrument).

2.5. Assessment of Enzymic Activity, Metabolites, and Hematological Responses

Serum metabolite and hematological response samples were processed at the Laboratorio de Análisis Clínicos Veterinarios of the UAZ-UAMVZ. Blood samples were collected from all calves on days 0 and 56. Coinciding with individual weighing, at 700 h, and before the first feeding of the day, blood was drawn from the jugular vein using vacutainer tubes. The blood serum was collected by centrifugation (2500× g at 4 °C for 15 min), and enzymatic activity and metabolites were quantified using an automated analyzer (FUJI DRI-CHEM NX500®; Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan). The following parameters were determined: (1) enzymatic activity: alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT); (2) levels of total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), globulin (TP-ALB), ALB/GLO ratio, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatinine (CRE); (3) total bilirubin (TBIL), total cholesterol (TCHO), and triglycerides (TG); (4) calcium (Ca) and glucose (GLU); and (5) electrolytes: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chlorine (Cl−). In addition, whole blood samples were analyzed for hematological responses using an automatic cell counting machine (Exigo Veterinary Haematology Analyzer®, Boule Medical AB, Spånga, Sweden). The following parameters were determined: total white blood cells (WBC), lymphocytes (LYM), lymphocytes % (LYM%), monocytes (MON), monocytes % (MON%), granulocytes (GRA), granulocytes % (GRA%), platelets (PLT), mean platelet volume (MPV), red blood cells (RBC), red blood cells distribution width test % (RDW%; represents the coefficient of variation of the RBCs volume distribution), hemoglobin (HGB), hematocrit (HCT), mean corpuscular volume (MCV; provides information about the volume or size of individual RBCs), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH; quantifies the amount of HGB per RBCs), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC; correlates the HGB content with the volume of the cell).

2.6. Statistical Analyses

All data were examined as a completely randomized design experiment utilizing SAS® software version 9.3 [29]. The individual calves served as the experimental units. Normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. The baseline data for IBW, body fat reserves, LMA, enzymatic activity, metabolites, and hematological responses, collected on day 0, were used as covariates for the measurements taken on day 56. Tukey’s multiple comparison tests were applied, standard errors were reported, and treatment effects were deemed significant if the p-value was ≤ 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Growth Performance, Dietary Energetics, Body Fat Reserves and Longissimus Muscle Area

There were no effects (p > 0.05) of CaPr, Cr-Met, and CaPr + Cr-Met supplementation on DMI, FAT, and LMA. The responses of calves supplemented with CaPr, Cr-Met, and CaPr + Cr-Met were similar (p > 0.05) in ADG but higher (p < 0.05) compared to the control, which promoted an increase in ADG/DMI ratio (p < 0.05): 22% CaPr, 24.1% Cr-Met, and 19.9% CaPr + Cr-Met (Table 2). Likewise, the effects of CaPr and Cr-Met supplementation were similar (p > 0.05) in regards to dietary energy and the efficiency of dietary NE utilization and retention, but higher than the control treatment (p < 0.05): 10.4, 10.2, and 12.5% for CaPr, and 11.7, 11.4, and 13.8% for Cr-Met, respectively (Table 3). The positive effect on ADG/DMI ratio, efficiency of dietary NE utilization, and retention promoted a 25.0% increase in RFT with Cr-Met supplementation (p < 0.05).

3.2. Enzymatic Activity and Serum Metabolites

There were no effects (p > 0.05) of CaPr, Cr-Met, and CaPr + Cr-Met supplementation on enzymic activity (ALP, GGT, AST, and ALT; Table 4), TP (ALB and GLO), BUN, CRE, TBIL, TG, Ca (Table 5), or electrolytes (Na+, K+, and Cl−; Table 6). ALB/GLO ratio was reduced (p < 0.05) by 18.29% with CaPr + Cr-Met supplementation, with the control treatment having the highest effect. Total cholesterol (TCHO) was increased by 12.9% with Cr-Met and 11.6% with CaPr + Cr-Met (p < 0.05). Finally, CaPr + Cr-Met also increased GLU concentration by 23.3%; CaPr and Cr-Met slightly elevated it, but the effect of these supplements was similar to the rest of the treatments (p < 0.05).

3.3. Hematological Responses

The supplementation of CaPr, Cr-Met, and CaPr + Cr-Met did not cause significant effects (p > 0.05) in WBC, LYM, LYM%, MON, MON%, GRA, GRA% (Table 7), PLT, RDW%, HGB, HCT%, and MCHC (Table 8). However, the supplementation resulted in a significant increase (p < 0.05) in MPV, with CaPr showing a 10.3% increase, Cr-Met showing a 3.9% increase, and CaPr + Cr-Met showing a 1.9% increase. Additionally, the inclusion of CaPr led to a 6.2% rise in RBC, while the combination of CaPr + Cr-Met caused a 7.7% decrease in RBC (p < 0.05). Finally, CaPr + Cr-Met resulted in a 2.9% increase in MCH (p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

The hypothesis was that supplementing with 19 g of CaPr or 4 g of Cr-Met would have similar effects in high-risk beef calves, and that combining CaPr and Cr-Met could enhance growth performance, dietary energy, and body fat reserves. However, no synergistic effects were detected; instead, similar results were observed for all variables with individual supplementation.
Although their modes of action act at different levels, both CaPr and Cr have important effects on the physiological processes and pathways related to obtaining energy for maintenance, productivity, and health. CaPr has an effect at the ruminal level, promoting greater DM digestibility and N retention and favoring more efficient ruminal fermentation processes (by increasing propionate production and reducing methane production) [5,30,31,32]. At the systemic level, CaPr increases the synthesis of GLU via gluconeogenesis in the liver by increasing the energy status [33], whereas the effect of Cr is predominantly systemic, since it improves the response to insulin, due to its potential to assist in the cellular absorption of GLU and amino acids in tissues sensitive to insulin. In such a way, it can be stated that CaPr improves the energy status, and Cr improves the use of that energy for cell maintenance and growth [10,34]. In addition, Cr improves immune function, reduces serum cortisol concentration, and modulates the inflammatory response in stressed animals [35]. Therefore, the hypothesis arises that the combination of CaPr with Cr could have a synergistic effect on optimizing the energy from food to enhance productivity and health in newly received high-risk beef calves.

4.1. Growth Performance, Dietary Energetics, Body Fat Reserves and Longissimus Muscle Area

Calves that received the combination of CaPr + Cr-Met exhibited an improved ADG and ADG/DMI ratio, similar to the individual effects of CaPr and Cr-Met supplemented separately. There are no previous reports on high-risk beef calves supplemented with CaPr + Cr-Met, and those surrounding Cr-Met are also very limited, since it is used more in the finishing stage. Previous reports regarding supplementation with 20 g of CaPr [8,9] have indicated improvements in ADG and ADG/DMI ratio, with no negative effects on DMI. On the other hand, supplementation for 28 d of CrPr or Cr-Yeast has been shown to significantly improve DMI, ADG, and ADG/DMI ratio [19,36,37]; however, other authors did not observe effects with the inclusion of Cr-Met [38]. The efficiency of dietary NE utilization improved with CaPr or Cr-Met supplementation by 10.2 and 11.4%, respectively, but the combination (CaPr + Cr-Met) produced very similar results, and this coincided with the observed expected dietary NE ratio; likewise, energy retention had the same behavior. Expected DMI increased by 12.5% for CaPr, and 13.8% for Cr-Met.
The presence of body fat reserves in calves upon arrival is an important indicator of their nutritional status. Therefore, it is crucial to encourage the accumulation of these reserves [39]. In our study, the inclusion of CaPr or CaPr + Cr-Met increased RFT, but the increase was greater with Cr-Met. Previous observations in calves have shown that with CaPr, there were maximum increases of 24.9% of FAT at 42 d and 21% of RFT at 56 d [8]. Additionally, the inclusion of CaPr, along with an increase in the concentrate level, led to a RFT increase of up to 16.6% [9]. This is due to the fact that diets with a higher energy or protein content stimulate the deposition of body fat reserves [40,41], coupled with the increase in adipogenesis with the inclusion of CaPr [42].

4.2. Enzymatic Activity and Serum Metabolites

The supplementation of CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met in high-risk beef calves has been found to have no pathological effect or improvement in hepatic and renal metabolism. This is evidenced by the maintenance of enzymatic activity within the reference intervals (ALP, GGT, AST, and ALT) [24]. Regarding ALP, it has been reported that CrPr in high-risk beef calves [21], Cr-Met in finishing cattle [43], and doses of 20 g of CaPr do not modify its activity, but when inclusion of CaPr is raised above 80 g, it causes a reduction in ALP [8,9]; these reductions in young growing calves are associated with a decrease in osteoblasts (reduced bone growth) [44]. Other authors have also pointed out that GGT activity is not modified by CaPr supplementation [8,9], but the increase is related to greater hepatic activity [45]. AST activity has also not been modified by CaPr supplementation [8,9] or with CrPr [21], CrPic, or Cr Yeast [14]; increases are considered a nonspecific indicator of tissue injury [46]. Finally, ALT activity is not modified with increasing levels of concentrate and CaPr supplementation [9] or with CrPr [21], CrPic, or Cr Yeast [14].
TP is the main solid component of serum and is made up of ALB and GLO, which are indicative of the nutritional status of cattle. In the present research, TP, ALB, and GLO were found to remain within the established RIs despite supplementation with CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met [24]. In high-risk beef calves, Rivera-Villegas et al. [9] provided CaPr supplementation and a diet with 50% concentrate, and their results indicated that TP and ALB concentrations were reduced, although they remained within the RIs. However, following supplementation with different levels of CaPr [8] or with CrPr [21], CrPic, and Cr Yeast [14], or Cr-Met in finishing cattle [43], no effects were observed. Supplementation with doses lower than 60 g of CaPr [8,9] or with CrPr [21] did not alter GLO, while an increase in its concentration was noted with 80 g of CaPr [8], with the final value still within the RIs; this could possibly be due to chronic inflammation of the liver [47]. Additionally, the ALB/GLO ratio decreased with the supplementation of CaPr and Cr-Met, with the lowest value observed when both products were combined (CaPr + Cr-Met). Nevertheless, these changes remained within the RIs, indicating the overall health of the cattle.
Serum BUN levels help to estimate the amount of N excreted and the efficiency with which it is utilized [48]. This is influenced by the level of crude protein intake, rumen degradability, and liver and kidney function [49]. In the current study, N utilization efficiency was not affected by the treatments. Similarly, in high-risk beef calves, studies using low doses of CaPr [8,9] or CrPr [21], CrPic and Cr Yeast [14], or Cr-Met in finishing cattle [43] did not show significant changes. However, with high doses of 80 g of CaPr, increases were observed without exceeding RIs [8,24]. Waggoner et al. [50] noted that calves with immunological problems have lower nitrogen retention due to increased muscle catabolism to obtain proteins and improve the immune response. Protein catabolism is higher (indicated by high BUN levels) at the beginning of the reception phase (first 20 d), but it decreases as the animal becomes more dependent on dietary protein rather than muscle catabolism [51].
Supplementation with CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met did not affect the CRE concentration, which remained within the RIs [24]; these results coincide with those reported by other authors in high-risk beef calves who were administered low doses of CaPr [8,9] or with CrPr [21], as well as with Cr-Met supplementation in finishing cattle [43], indicating the maintenance of an appropriate renal glomerular filtration rate and the absence of treatment interference. However, it has been observed that escalating the inclusion of CaPr from 20 to 80 g results in elevated CRE levels [8].
TBIL is an important indicator of liver function, exhibiting an increase during severe lipidosis and a decrease in the presence of a healthy liver [52,53]. In this study, TBIL concentrations remained unaffected by the treatments, falling within the normal range (0.20–1.30; [24]), signifying the absence of adverse effects of the treatments on liver function. This aligns with the findings of other studies involving increased concentrate levels and CaPr supplementation [9] or CrPr [21].
Lipids primarily consist of TCHO and TG, reflecting the liver’s energy metabolism [54]. Increases in lipid levels are associated with a rise in propionic acid production in the rumen, leading to increased TCHO production in the liver, while decreases indicate an energy deficit [55]. The supplementation of Cr-Met or CaPr + Cr-Met has been found to boost the energy of high-risk beef calves, observed with the increase in TCHO concentration, which did not exceed the RIs [24]. Similar effects were observed with 80 g CaPr supplementation [8]. However, no significant effects were noted with 20 g CaPr supplementation [8,9], CrPic and Cr Yeast [14], or Cr-Met in finishing cattle [43].
The supplementation of CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met did not alter the Ca concentration beyond the RIs [24]. This finding is consistent with various studies on high-risk beef calves that also received CaPr supplementation [8,9,56,57] or CrPr [21], as well as Cr-Met in finishing cattle [43]. However, other authors have mentioned that as the level of CaPr supplementation increases, it leads to an increase in Ca concentration [8,41].
Blood GLU concentration is often used as a metabolic indicator of nutrient intake in beef cattle [58]. CaPr and Cr-Met supplementation increased GLU levels, with the highest levels observed with CaPr + Cr-Met, while still remaining within the RIs [24]. Ermita et al. [59] also noted increases with CaPr administration, whereas Bernhard et al. [19] observed reductions with CrPr. The increase may be linked to adequate DMI, since circulating GLU is influenced by nutrient availability and utilization [60,61]. However, different authors have pointed out that in high-risk beef calves supplemented with CaPr [8,57,62], CrPr [21], CrPic, and Cr Yeast [14], or Cr-Met in finishing cattle [43] exhibited no change in glycemia.
Supplementation with CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met did not alter the values of electrolytes (Na+, K+, and Cl−), and they remained within the established RIs [24]. This finding is consistent with other reports on the effects of CaPr supplementation [8,9] or CrPr [21] in high-risk beef calves. All of the above indicates that the basal diets adequately met the nutritional electrolyte requirements of the calves [63]. Low Na+ and Cl− values are often due to diarrhea [46], and K+ deficiency is commonly associated with stressed cattle due to dehydration and loss of K+ in the tissues [64].

4.3. Hematological Responses

Supplementation with CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met helped maintain WBC, PLT, and RBC (hematological response) values within the established RIs [24]. This indicates that high-risk calves have healthy immunological status [65].
WBC values were not affected by CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met supplementation, which aligns with findings from Rodríguez-Cordero et al. [8] and Rivera-Villegas et al. [9] with 20 g CaPr, and Smock et al. [21] with CrPr supplementation. However, increasing CaPr inclusion from 40 to 80 g reduced LYM%, and increased GRA and GRA% [8].
Regarding PLT, MCHC, RBC, RDW%, HGB, HCT, and MCV, no discernible effects of CaPr, Cr-Met, or CaPr + Cr-Met were noted, which coincides with what was observed by Rodríguez-Cordero et al. [8] and Rivera-Villegas et al. [9] with CaPr supplementation. Additionally, Smock et al. [21] also found no significant impact on most of these variables with CrPr supplementation, although they did observe reductions in HGB, HCT, and MCV. Only CaPr supplementation had an effect on MPV and RBC, resulting in elevated values. However, other authors have observed no effect with CaPr [8,9] or CrPr [21] supplementation. Likewise, CaPr + Cr-Met supplementation increased MCH values, which coincides with Rodríguez-Cordero et al. [8], who also observed an increase when CaPr inclusion was raised from 40 to 80 g; conversely, Smock et al. [21] reported that CrPr supplementation led to a decrease in MCH values.

5. Conclusions

Supplementation with the gluconeogenic precursor CaPr or Cr-Met improved growth performance and dietary energy utilization in newly arrived high-risk calves, with no negative impact on hematological parameters and minimal effect on serum metabolites. Thus, either CaPr or Cr-Met can be used individually to enhance the performance of high-risk calves at arrival, and their combination does not appear to be required under these experimental conditions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, all authors; methodology and formal analysis, O.Y.S.-B., O.C.-M., P.H.-B., D.R.-C., A.R.-V., A.E.-A., A.P. and R.L.-C.; investigation; O.Y.S.-B., O.C.-M., P.H.-B., D.R.-C. and R.L.-C.; data curation, O.C.-M., P.H.-B., D.R.-C. and A.P.; writing—original draft preparation, O.Y.S.-B., O.C.-M., P.H.-B. and A.P.; writing—review and editing, O.Y.S.-B., O.C.-M., P.H.-B., D.R.-C., A.E.-A., A.P. and R.L.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This experiment was conducted at the Torunos Livestock Preconditioning Center, in the experimental area, situated in Fresnillo 99150, Mexico, property Grupo Exportador Pa Lante S.P.R. de R.L. The experiment reported herein was approved of Bioethics and Animal Welfare Committee of UAMVZ-UAZ, with protocol # 2024/05/14.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The information published in this study is available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Manuel Núñez Carrillo, owner of Grupo Exportador Pa Lante S.P.R. de R.L., and his team, for the great help they provided to this project, as well as their interest in research and innovation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Richeson, J.T.; Samuelson, K.L.; Tomczak, D.J. Energy and roughage levels in cattle receiving diets and impacts on health, performance, and immune responses. J. Anim. Sci. 2019, 97, 3596–3604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Duff, G.C.; Galyean, M.L. Board-invited review: Recent advances in management of highly stressed, newly received feedlot cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 2007, 85, 823–840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Blecha, F.; Boyles, S.L.; Riley, J.G. Shipping suppresses lymphocyte blastogenic responses in Angus and Brahman × Angus feeder calves. J. Anim. Sci. 1984, 59, 576–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Snowder, G.D.; Van Vleck, L.D.; Cundiff, L.V.; Bennett, G.L. Bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle: Environmental, genetic, and economic factors. J. Anim. Sci. 2006, 84, 1999–2008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Fluharty, F.L.; Loerch, S.C. Effects of dietary energy source and level on performance of newly arrived feedlot calves. J. Anim. Sci. 1996, 74, 504–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Rivera, J.D.; Galyean, M.L.; Nichols, W.T. Review: Dietary roughage concentration and health of newly received cattle. Prof. Anim. Sci. 2005, 21, 345–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, 8th ed.; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2016; ISBN 978-0-309-31702-3. [Google Scholar]
  8. Rodriguez-Cordero, D.; Carrillo-Muro, O.; Hernandez-Briano, P.; Rivera-Villegas, A.; Estrada-Angulo, A. Effect of dietary calcium propionate inclusion level and duration in high-risk newly received stocker calves: Growth performance, body fat reserves, and health. Agriculture 2023, 13, 2062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Rivera-Villegas, A.; Carrillo-Muro, O.; Rodríguez-Cordero, D.; Hernández-Briano, P.; Sánchez-Barbosa, O.Y.; Lazalde-Cruz, R.; Castro-Pérez, B.I.; Plascencia, A. Effects of supplemental calcium propionate and concentrate level: Growth performance, body fat reserves, and health of high-risk beef calves. Vet. Sci. 2024, 11, 336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Vincent, J.B. The biochemistry of chromium. J. Nutr. 2000, 130, 715–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Pechova, A.; Pavlata, L. Chromium as an essential nutrient: A review. Vet. Med-Czech 2007, 52, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Sánchez-Mendoza, B.; Aguilar-Hernandez, A.; Lopez-Soto, M.A.; Barreras, A.; Estrada-Angulo, A.; Navarro, F.J.M.; Torrentera, N.; Zinn, R.A.; Plascencia, A. Effects of high-level chromium methionine supplementation in lambs fed a corn-based diet on the carcass characteristics and chemical composition of the longissimus muscle. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 2015, 39, 376–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Bin-Jumah, M.; Abd El-Hack, M.E.; Abdelnour, S.A.; Hendy, Y.A.; Ghanem, H.A.; Alsafy, S.A.; Khafaga, A.F.; Noreldin, A.E.; Shaheen, H.; Samak, D.; et al. Potential use of chromium to combat thermal stress in animals: A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 707, 135996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Keshri, A.; Roy, D.; Kumar, V.; Kumar, M.; Kushwaha, R.; Vaswani, S.; Kumari, L.V.; Dixit, S.; Prakash, A.; Choudhury, S. Impact of different chromium sources on physiological responses, blood biochemicals and endocrine status of heat stress in dairy calves. Biol. Rhythm. Res. 2022, 53, 58–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Valdéz-García, Y.S.; Aguilera-Soto, J.I.; Barreras, A.; Estrada-Angulo, A.; Gómez-Vazquez, A.; Plascencia, A.; Reyes, J.J.; Stuart, J.; Torrentera, N.G. Growth performance and carcass characteristics in finishing feedlot heifers fed different levels of chromium-enriched live yeast or fed zilpaterol hydrochloride. Cuba. J. Agric. Sci. 2011, 45, 361–368. Available online: https://cjascience.com/index.php/CJAS/article/view/94 (accessed on 1 October 2024).
  16. Mowat, D.N. Organic Chromium in Animal Nutrition; CABI Digital Library: Guelph, ON, Canada, 1997; ISBN 978-0-9681853-0-8. [Google Scholar]
  17. Ohh, S.J.; Lee, J.Y. Dietary chromium methionine chelate supplementation and animal performance. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2005, 18, 898–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Bernhard, B.C.; Burdick, N.C.; Rathmann, R.J.; Carroll, J.A.; Finck, D.N.; Jennings, M.A.; Young, T.R.; Johnson, B.J. Chromium supplementation alters the performance of feedlot cattle during the receiving period and enhances their metabolic responses to a lipopolysaccharide challenge. J. Anim. Sci. 2012, 90, 3879–3888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Bernhard, B.C.; Burdick, N.C.; Rathmann, R.J.; Carroll, J.A.; Finck, D.N.; Jennings, M.A.; Young, T.R.; Johnson, B.J. Chromium supplementation alters both glucose and lipid metabolism in feedlot cattle during the receiving period. J. Anim. Sci. 2012, 90, 4857–4865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Spears, J.W.; Whisnant, C.S.; Huntington, G.B.; Lloyd, K.E.; Fry, R.S.; Krafka, K.; Lamptey, A.; Hyda, J. Chromium propionate enhances insulin sensitivity in growing cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 2012, 95, 2037–2045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Smock, T.M.; Samuelson, K.L.; Wells, J.E.; Hales, K.E.; Hergenreder, J.E.; Rounds, P.W.; Richeson, J.T. Effects of Bacillus subtilis PB6 and/or chromium propionate supplementation on serum chemistry, complete blood count, and fecal Salmonella spp. count in high-risk cattle during the feedlot receiving and finishing periods. Transl. Anim. Sci. 2020, 4, txaa164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. NOM-024-ZOO-1995 Especificaciones y Características Zoosanitarias Para el Transporte de Animales, sus Productos y Subproductos, Productos Químicos, Farmacéuticos, Biológicos y Alimenticios Para Uso en Animales o Consumo por Éstos. Diario Oficial de la Federación. 1995. Available online: https://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=4883147&fecha=16/10/1995#gsc.tab=0 (accessed on 13 June 2024).
  23. NOM-051-ZOO-1995 Trato Humanitario en la Movilización de Animales. Diario Oficial de la Federación. 1995. Available online: https://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=4870842&fecha=23/03/1998#gsc.tab=0 (accessed on 13 June 2024).
  24. Carrillo-Muro, O.; Rodríguez-Cordero, D.; Hernández-Briano, P.; Correa-Aguado, P.I.; Medina-Flores, C.A.; Huerta-López, L.A.; Rodríguez-Valdez, F.J.; Rivera-Villegas, A.; Plascencia, A. Enzymic activity, metabolites, and hematological responses in high-risk newly received calves for “clinical health” reference intervals. Animals 2024, 14, 2342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Carrillo-Muro, O.; Hernández-Briano, P.; Correa-Aguado, P.I.; Rivera-Villegas, A.; Sánchez-Barbosa, O.Y.; Lazalde-Cruz, R.; Barreras, A.; Plascencia, A.; Rodríguez-Cordero, D. Enzymic activity, metabolites, and hematological responses changes of clinical healthy high-risk beef calves during their first 56-days from arrival. Animals 2025, 15, 133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. AOAC (Official Methods of Analysis). Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 20th ed.; AOAC: Rockville, MD, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  27. Zinn, R.A.; Barreras, A.; Owens, F.N.; Plascencia, A. Performance by feedlot steers and heifers: ADG, mature weight, DMI and dietary energetics. J. Anim. Sci. 2008, 86, 2680–2689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Lofgreen, G.P.; Garrett, W.N. A system for expressing net energy requirements and feed values for growing and finishing beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 1968, 27, 793–806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Statistical Analytical System, Institute Inc. SAS Proprietary Software Release 9.3; SAS Institute Inc. (SAS): Cary, NC, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  30. Osorio-Teran, A.I.; Mendoza-Martínez, G.D.; Miranda-Romero, L.A.; Martínez-Gomez, D.; Hernández-García, P.A.; Martínez-García, J.A. Effect of calcium propionate and monensin on in vitro digestibility and gas production. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2017, 46, 348–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Murillo-Ortiz, M.; Pámanes-Carrasco, G.; Castillo, Y.; Ortiz-Robledo, F.; Herrera-Torres, E. Evaluation of monensin, yeast and glucogenic precursor on growth performance, ruminal fermentation and digestive kinetics of feedlot steers. Indian J. Anim. Res. 2019, B-1003, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Cao, N.; Wu, H.; Zhang, X.Z.; Meng, Q.X.; Zhou, Z.M. Calcium propionate supplementation alters the ruminal bacterial and archaeal communities in pre-and postweaning calves. J. Dairy Sci. 2020, 103, 3204–3218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Aiello, R.J.; Armentano, L.E.; Bertics, S.J.; Murphy, A.T. Volatile fatty acid uptake and propionate metabolism in ruminant hepatocytes. J. Dairy Sci. 1989, 72, 942–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Schwarz, K.; Mertz, W. Chromium (III) and the glucose tolerance factor. Arch. Biochem. 1959, 85, 292–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Weiss, W.P.; Spears, J.W. Vitamin and trace mineral effects on immune function of ruminants. In Ruminant Physiology; Wageningen Academic: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2023; ISBN 978-90-8686-566-6. [Google Scholar]
  36. Chang, X.; Mowat, D.N. Supplemental chromium for stressed and growing feeder calves. J. Anim. Sci. 1992, 70, 559–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Moonsie-Shageer, S.; Mowat, D.N. Effects of level of supplemental chromium on performance, serum constituents, and immune status of stressed feeder calves. J. Anim. Sci. 1993, 71, 232–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Kegley, E.B.; Galloway, D.L.; Fakler, T.M. Effect of dietary chromium-L-methionine on glucose metabolism of beef steers. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 78, 3177–3183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Chilliard, Y.; Anne, F.; Yannick, F.; Muriel, B.; Jacques, R.; François, B. Adipose Tissue Metabolism and Its Role in Adaptations to Undernutrition in Ruminants. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2000, 59, 127–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Owens, F.N.; Dubeski, P.; Hanson, C.F. Factors that alter the growth and development of ruminants. J. Anim. Sci. 1993, 71, 3138–3150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Davis, T.A.; Burrin, D.G.; Fiorotto, M.L.; Reeds, P.J.; Jahoor, F. Roles of insulin and amino acids in the regulation of protein synthesis in the neonate. J. Nutr. 1998, 128, 347–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Zhang, X.Z.; Meng, Q.X.; Lu, L.; Cui, Z.L.; Ren, L.P. The effect of calcium propionate supplementation on performance, meat quality, and mRNA expression of finishing steers fed a high-concentrate diet. J. Anim. Feed Sci. 2015, 24, 100–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Nejad, J.G.; Lee, B.H.; Kim, B.W.; Ohh, S.J.; Sung, K.I. Effects of chromium methionine supplementation on blood metabolites and fatty acid profile of beef during late fattening period in holstein steers. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2016, 29, 378–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Otter, A. Diagnostic blood biochemistry and haematology in cattle. Practice 2013, 35, 7–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Latimer, K.S. Duncan and Prasse’s Veterinary Laboratory Medicine: Clinical Pathology, 4th ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011; ISBN 849634410X/9788496344105. [Google Scholar]
  46. Carlson, P.G. Clinical chemistry test. In Large Animal Internal Medicine, 4th ed.; Smith, B.P., Ed.; Elsevier Health Sciences: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2009; pp. 375–398. ISBN 9780323042970. [Google Scholar]
  47. Russell, K.E.; Roussel, A.J. Evaluation of the ruminant serum chemistry profile. Vet. Clin. Food Anim. 2007, 23, 403–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Kohn, R.; Dinneen, M.; Russek-Cohen, E. Using blood urea nitrogen to predict nitrogen excretion and efficiency of nitrogen utilization in cattle, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, and rats. J. Anim. Sci. 2005, 83, 879–889. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Eicher, R.; Liesegang, A.; Bouchard, E.; Tremblay, A. Effect of cow-specific factors and feeding frequency of concentrate on diurnal variations of blood metabolites in dairy cows. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1999, 60, 1493–1499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Waggoner, J.W.; Löest, C.A.; Turner, J.L.; Mathis, C.P.; Hallford, D.M. Effects of dietary protein and bacterial lipopolysaccharide infusion on nitrogen metabolism and hormonal responses of growing beef steers. J. Anim. Sci. 2009, 87, 3656–3668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Robison, C.A.; Pierce, K.N.; Reuter, R.R.; Warner, A.L.; Wilson, B.K. The effects of receiving diet roughage inclusion on performance, health, and serum metabolite characteristics of newly received beef calves. Transl. Anim. Sci. 2023, 7, txad039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Bossaert, P.; Trevisi, E.; Opsomer, G.; Bertoni, G.; De Vliegher, S.; Leroy, J.L.M.R. The association between indicators of inflammation and liver variables during the transition period in high-yielding dairy cows: An observational study. Vet. J. 2012, 192, 222–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Sejersen, H.; Sørensen, M.T.; Larsen, T.; Bendixen, E.; Ingvartsen, K.L. Liver protein expression in dairy cows with high liver triglycerides in early lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 2012, 95, 2409–2421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Ndlovu, T.; Chimonyo, M.; Okoh, A.I.; Muchenje, V.; Dzama, K.; Raats, J.G. Assessing the nutritional status of beef cattle: Current practices and future prospects. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2007, 6, 2727–2734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Fernandes, S.R.; Freitas, J.A.; Souza, D.F.; Kowalski, L.H.; Dittrich, R.L.; Rossi, P., Jr.; Silva, C.J.A. Lipidograma como ferramenta na avaliação do metabolismo energético em ruminantes. Rev. Bras. Agrociência 2012, 18, 1–32. Available online: https://periodicos.ufpel.edu.br/index.php/CAST/article/view/2484 (accessed on 24 September 2024).
  56. Sano, H.; Fujita, T. Effect of supplemental calcium propionate on insulin action to blood glucose metabolism in adult sheep. Rep. Nut. Dev. 2006, 46, 9–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Rathert-Williams, A.R.; Salisbury, C.M.; Lindholm-Perry, A.K.; Pezeshki, A.; Lalman, D.L.; Foote, A.P. Effects of increasing calcium propionate in a finishing diet on dry matter intake and glucose metabolism in steers. J. Anim. Sci. 2021, 99, skab314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Hersom, M.J.; Wettemann, R.P.; Krehbiel, C.R.; Horn, G.W.; Keisler, D.H. Effect of live weight gain of steers during winter grazing: III. Blood metabolites and hormones during feedlot finishing. J. Anim. Sci. 2004, 82, 2059–2068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Ermita, P.A.N.; Viana, R.B.; Avanza, M.F.B.; Teixeira, R.B.C.; Silva, J.R.B.; Monteiro, L.C.; Costa, C.M.; Bento, L.D.; Mendes, P.V.C.; Ferreira Ermita, D.A.C.; et al. Biochemical, urinary, and acid-base profile in cattle treated with maintenance enteral electrolyte solutions containing calcium propionate, propylene glycol or glycerol. Front. Vet. Sci. 2022, 9, 945542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Huntington, G.B. Starch utilization by ruminants: From basics to the bunk. J. Anim. Sci. 1997, 75, 852–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Oosthuysen, E.R.; Hubbert, M.E.; Samuelson, K.L.; Scholljegerdes, E.J.; Duff, G.C.; Löest, C.A. Health evaluation of immune-stimulated and hay-supplemented feedlot receiving calves as assessed by blood gas analysis. Proc. Am. Soc. Anim. 2016, 67, 83–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Rathert-Williams, A.R.; McConnell, H.L.; Salisbury, C.M.; Lindholm-Perry, A.K.; Lalman, D.L.; Pezeshki, A.; Foote, A.P. Effects of adding ruminal propionate on dry matter intake and glucose metabolism in steers fed a finishing ration. J. Anim. Sci. 2023, 101, skad072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Radostits, O.M.; Gay, M.L.; Blood, D.C.; Hinchcliff, K.W. Veterinary Medicine, 10th ed.; Baillier Tindall: London, UK, 2007; pp. 303–311. ISBN 978-0702027772. [Google Scholar]
  64. Preston, R.L. Receiving Cattle Nutrition. Vet. Clin. Food Anim. 2007, 23, 193–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. George, J.W.; Snipes, J.; Lane, V.M. Comparison of bovine hematology reference intervals from 1957 to 2006. Vet. Clin. Pathol. 2010, 39, 138–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ruminants 05 00003 g001
Figure 1. A completely randomized design experiment using 48 calves individually housed (12 calves/treatment). Treatments consisted of daily calcium propionate (CaPr), chromium-methionine (Cr-Met), and calcium propionate plus chromium-methionine (CaPr + Cr-Met) supplementation over a feeding period of 56 d. The prices (USD/g of product) of CaPr and Cr-Met were USD 0.0021 and USD 0.0047, respectively.
Figure 1. A completely randomized design experiment using 48 calves individually housed (12 calves/treatment). Treatments consisted of daily calcium propionate (CaPr), chromium-methionine (Cr-Met), and calcium propionate plus chromium-methionine (CaPr + Cr-Met) supplementation over a feeding period of 56 d. The prices (USD/g of product) of CaPr and Cr-Met were USD 0.0021 and USD 0.0047, respectively.
Ruminants 05 00003 g001
Table 1. Composition of experimental diet (dry matter basis).
Table 1. Composition of experimental diet (dry matter basis).
Ingredientsg kg−1 DM
Alfalfa hay mature250
Oats hay250
Corn grain cracked280
Soybean meal-44105
Molasses cane50
Vegetable fat21.5
Sodium bentonite7.5
Sodium Sesquicarbonate15
Calcium carbonate8
Monocalcium phosphate2
Urea5
Salt5
Premix a1
Chemical composition, g kg−1 DM
Dry matter843.0
Crude protein145.1
Ether extract42.9
Neutral detergent fiber343.7
Calcium b9.5
Phosphorus b2.9
Ca/P ratio3.3
Calculated net energy, Mcal/kg
Maintenance1.57
Gain0.98
a Contained per kilogram of premix: 0.5 g of Co, 50 g of Fe, 2.5 g of I, 50 g of Mn, 50 g of Zn, 0.2 g of Se, and 15 g of Cu; 5,000,000 IU of vitamin A, 2,000,000 IU of D, and 10,000 IU of E. b Calculated based on the tabular values for individual feed ingredients (Ca, P, NEm, and NEg) NASEM [7], with the exception of DM, CP, NDF, and EE (Ankom procedures), which were determined in our laboratory.
Table 2. Growth performance of high-risk beef calves fed with supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 2. Growth performance of high-risk beef calves fed with supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Item aTreatments aSEM b
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Initial body weight, kg154.00147.56148.02143.334.38
Final body weight, kg205.67 b210.11 a212.44 a206.17 ab1.64
Average daily gain, kg/d0.922 b1.117 a1.151 a1.122 a0.0288
Dry matter intake, kg/d4.844.794.854.890.0394
Average daily gain/Dry matter intake ratio0.191 b0.233 a0.237 a0.229 a0.0061
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b SEM = standard error of the mean. a,b Means a row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s test.
Table 3. Dietary energetics and ultrasound measurement of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 3. Dietary energetics and ultrasound measurement of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
ItemTreatments aSEM b
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Dietary net energy (Mcal/kg)
Maintenance1.612 b1.780 a1.796 a1.725 ab0.037
Gain1.004 b1.150 a1.165 a1.103 ab0.033
Observed: expected dietary net energy ratio
Maintenance1.027 b1.132 a1.144 a1.099 ab0.024
Gain1.024 b1.173 a1.189 a1.125 ab0.033
Ultrasound measurements
12th rib fat thickness, mm2.502.692.552.300.148
Rump fat thickness, mm3.20 b3.51 ab4.00 a3.68 ab0.208
Longissimus muscle area, cm232.7332.7133.3431.190.819
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b SEM = standard error of the mean. a,b Means a row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s test.
Table 4. Enzymic activity of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 4. Enzymic activity of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
ItemTreatments aReference Intervals bSEM c
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Alkaline phosphatase, U/I159.27181.25182.25193.8214.4–469.6 (209.7 ± 107)17.34
Gamma glutamyltransferase, U/I14.2711.4113.4514.6010.0–47.9 (17.0 ± 8.9)1.18
Aspartate aminotransferase, U/I81.7270.6673.5477.5138.9–124.2 (68.8 ± 21.9)5.12
Alanine aminotransferase, U/I34.9029.0130.0031.9016.6–44.4 (26.5 ± 7.3)1.73
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b Reference intervals reported here are from the publication by Carrillo-Muro et al. [24]. c SEM = standard error of the mean.
Table 5. Serum metabolites of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 5. Serum metabolites of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
ItemTreatments aReference Intervals bSEM c
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Total protein, g/dL6.416.456.587.124.4–7.71 (6.22 ± 0.83)0.19
Albumin, g/dL3.143.093.023.111.9–3.7 (2.97 ± 0.50)0.14
Globulins, g/dL3.323.353.583.772.2–4.11 (3.18 ± 0.50)0.14
Albumin/Globulins ratio0.97 a0.94 ab0.85 ab0.82 b0.68–1.32 (0.94 ± 0.17)0.03
Blood urea nitrogen, mg/dL15.7914.1715.7514.686.91–16.1 (11.08 ± 2.31)0.59
Creatinine, mg/dL0.710.790.710.750.52–1.35 (0.81 ± 0.20)0.06
Total bilirubin, mg/dL0.540.390.340.390.20–1.30 (0.34 ± 0.29)0.08
Total cholesterol, mg/dL71.30 b73.16 b80.53 a79.54 a50.0–127.7 (78.6 ± 22.0)4.09
Triglycerides, mg/dL19.5920.5821.5317.4510.0–360.7 (36.5 ± 77.1)3.01
Calcium, mg/dL9.139.629.8710.127.12–12.5 (10.28 ± 1.42)0.25
Glucose, mg/dL63.41 b70.00 ab72.58 ab78.20 a26.1–126.0 (89.0 ± 22.5)3.53
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b Reference intervals reported here are from the publication by Carrillo-Muro et al. [24]. c SEM = standard error of the mean. a,b Means a row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s test.
Table 6. Electrolytes of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 6. Electrolytes of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
ItemTreatments aReference Intervals bSEM c
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Sodium, mEq/L123.08126.27126.67128.9298.2–143.0 (126.3 ± 12.1)2.51
Potassium, mEq/L6.836.616.656.793.11–8.59 (4.93 ± 1.21)0.37
Chlorine, mEq/L88.5391.1791.8495.7271.1–109.0 (90.8 ± 9.8)1.93
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b Reference intervals reported here are from the publication Carrillo-Muro et al. [24]. c SEM = standard error of the mean.
Table 7. White blood cells of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 7. White blood cells of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
ItemTreatments aReference Intervals bSEM c
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Total white blood cells, ×103 cells/μL8.438.458.417.054.6–15.2 (9.65 ± 2.62)0.535
Lymphocytes, ×103 cells/μL5.675.194.975.032.6–9.0 (5.87 ± 1.6)0.431
Lymphocytes, %67.2959.5459.859.3833.6–74.61 (59.2 ± 9.48)2.796
Monocytes, ×103 cells/μL0.800.810.750.870.30–1.40 (0.83 ± 0.26)0.071
Monocytes, %8.719.418.169.655.54–12.0 (8.28 ± 1.5)0.431
Granulocytes, ×103 cells/μL1.992.412.352.271.10–6.74 (3.33 ± 1.42)0.261
Granulocytes, %24.3328.3132.1330.5217.51–85.57 (35.3 ± 14.8)2.764
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b Reference intervals reported here are from the publication by Carrillo-Muro et al. [24]. c SEM = standard error of the mean.
Table 8. Platelets and red blood cells of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
Table 8. Platelets and red blood cells of high-risk beef calves fed supplemental calcium propionate (CaPr) and chromium-methionine (Cr-Met) for 56 d (n = 12 calves/treatment).
ItemTreatments aReference Intervals bSEM c
ControlCaPrCr-MetCaPr + Cr-Met
Platelets, ×103 cells/μL276.81253.74239.00269.5291.2–444.9 (239.8 ± 90.7)28.169
Mean platelet volume, fL6.75 d7.44 a7.02 b6.88 c6.14–9.08 (7.22 ± 0.97)0.0001
Red blood cells, ×106 cells/μL7.92 ab8.41 a7.86 ab7.31 b7.88–11.90 (9.77 ± 1.07)0.244
Red blood cells distribution width test, %25.8326.2326.1127.1819.11–30.13 (26.4 ± 2.54)0.436
Hemoglobin, g/100 mL11.0111.2411.1510.629.40–14.4 (12.05 ± 1.31)0.258
Hematocrit, %29.8730.2130.0428.1926.65–41.93 (34.27 ± 3.92)0.881
Mean corpuscular volume, fL37.2736.3336.1837.5329.1–41.8 (35.12 ± 3.1)0.474
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin, pg13.86 b13.50 b13.81 b14.26 a10.6–14.4 (12.36 ± 1.03)0.178
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, g/dL37.1737.3637.3737.6530.58–38.93 (35.35 ± 1.98)0.295
a Treatments consisted of oral administration of calcium propionate (CaPr, Propical®, Dresen Química, SAPI de CV., Ciudad de México, México) or chromium-methionine (Cr-Met, MiCroPlex® 1000, Zinpro Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA): (1) No additives (Control), (2) CaPr, (3) Cr-Met, and (4) CaPr + Cr-Met. CaPr was administered at a dose of 19 g/calf/d and Cr-Met at a dose of 4 g/calf/d. b Reference intervals reported here are from the publication by Carrillo-Muro et al. [24]. c SEM = standard error of the mean. a–d Means a row with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s test.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sánchez-Barbosa, O.Y.; Carrillo-Muro, O.; Hernández-Briano, P.; Rodríguez-Cordero, D.; Rivera-Villegas, A.; Estrada-Angulo, A.; Plascencia, A.; Lazalde-Cruz, R. Effect of Calcium Propionate and Chromium-Methionine Supplementation: Growth Performance, Body Fat Reserves, and Blood Parameters of High-Risk Beef Calves. Ruminants 2025, 5, 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5010003

AMA Style

Sánchez-Barbosa OY, Carrillo-Muro O, Hernández-Briano P, Rodríguez-Cordero D, Rivera-Villegas A, Estrada-Angulo A, Plascencia A, Lazalde-Cruz R. Effect of Calcium Propionate and Chromium-Methionine Supplementation: Growth Performance, Body Fat Reserves, and Blood Parameters of High-Risk Beef Calves. Ruminants. 2025; 5(1):3. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5010003

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sánchez-Barbosa, Oliver Yaotzin, Octavio Carrillo-Muro, Pedro Hernández-Briano, Daniel Rodríguez-Cordero, Alejandro Rivera-Villegas, Alfredo Estrada-Angulo, Alejandro Plascencia, and Rosalba Lazalde-Cruz. 2025. "Effect of Calcium Propionate and Chromium-Methionine Supplementation: Growth Performance, Body Fat Reserves, and Blood Parameters of High-Risk Beef Calves" Ruminants 5, no. 1: 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5010003

APA Style

Sánchez-Barbosa, O. Y., Carrillo-Muro, O., Hernández-Briano, P., Rodríguez-Cordero, D., Rivera-Villegas, A., Estrada-Angulo, A., Plascencia, A., & Lazalde-Cruz, R. (2025). Effect of Calcium Propionate and Chromium-Methionine Supplementation: Growth Performance, Body Fat Reserves, and Blood Parameters of High-Risk Beef Calves. Ruminants, 5(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5010003

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop