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Applied Sciences
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Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications
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Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 March 2025 | Viewed by 7991

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Kevin Ponto

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Interests: virtual reality; augmented reality; mixed reality
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As VR/AR technologies mature, their impact will continue to permeate every aspect of our lives. These technologies have shown themselves to be a powerful tool in creating novel methods for enhanced learning and training, providing experiences that would not otherwise be possible. Likewise, these technologies have been shown to have a transformative impact on healthcare, providing opportunities for everything from phobia treatment and surgical simulations to novel forms of physical therapy. Beyond this, VR and AR technologies have seen growing interest in the field of entertainment, providing new types of gaming experiences, enhancements to live events, and a new means of storytelling. Finally, these technologies have shown themselves to be powerful tools for boosting communication and social interaction, breaking down existing barriers of language and proximity.

This Special Issue aims to be at the forefront of this exciting journey, providing a forum for researchers to share their insights, discoveries, and creative endeavors. We encourage original submissions that explore the theoretical, methodological, and applicational landscapes of VR/AR, fostering a collaborative space for advancing this revolutionary field. In particular, articles may explore the theoretical underpinnings that guide the development of these technologies, examining questions of perception, embodiment, and human–computer interaction. Likewise, articles may explore the diverse methodologies driving innovation, from advancements in hardware and software to novel design practices and user-centered research. Finally, articles may explore the transformative potential of VR/AR in areas such as education, healthcare, training, and entertainment. Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Explorations of the theoretical underpinnings that create virtual or mixed reality experiences;
  • Explorations of the human side of virtual and augmented reality, including work related to perception, embodiment, and user-interface design;
  • Explorations of the development of hardware and/or software solutions that create novel forms of virtual and/or augmented reality experiences;
  • Applications that utilize virtual and augmented reality technologies for novel purposes.

Original work that highlights the latest research and technical development is encouraged, but review papers and comparative studies are also welcome.

Dr. Kevin Ponto
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • virtual reality
  • augmented reality
  • mixed reality
  • applications
  • methods
  • embodiment
  • perception
  • systems
  • theories

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 4263 KiB  
Article
Perceived Brightness and Resolution of Holographic Augmented Reality Retinal Scan Glasses
by Maximilian Rutz, Pia Neuberger, Simon Pick and Torsten Straßer
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1540; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031540 - 3 Feb 2025
Abstract
Augmented reality display performance depends strongly on features of the human visual system. This is especially true for retinal scan glasses, which use laser beam scanning and transparent holographic optical combiners. Human-centered approaches allow us to go beyond conventional optical metrology and evaluate [...] Read more.
Augmented reality display performance depends strongly on features of the human visual system. This is especially true for retinal scan glasses, which use laser beam scanning and transparent holographic optical combiners. Human-centered approaches allow us to go beyond conventional optical metrology and evaluate display performance as it is perceived in actual augmented reality use cases. Here, we first present a theoretical formula for the retinal scan luminance and ambient contrast ratio calculated from optical powers, wavelengths, field of view, and human pupil diameter. As a promising insight, we found that the pupil diameter dependence is beneficial in assimilating the virtual image luminance to the ambient luminance. Second, we designed and performed a psychophysical experiment to assess perceived resolution in augmented reality settings using a fully functional retinal scan glasses prototype. We present the results of the trials and illustrate how this approach can be used in the further development of augmented reality smart glasses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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25 pages, 19801 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Public Space Experiences: Evaluating Perception of Digital and Digitized Sculptures in Augmented Reality
by Isidora Đurić, Saša Medić, Dejan Ecet, Stanislav Grgić and Jelena Atanacković Jeličić
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020870 - 17 Jan 2025
Viewed by 739
Abstract
Augmented reality (AR) technologies offer innovative possibilities for creating virtual artworks that seamlessly blend digital and physical elements, thereby enhancing public spaces and engaging users with both their environment and the AR content. Key concepts for assessing user experiences in AR environments include [...] Read more.
Augmented reality (AR) technologies offer innovative possibilities for creating virtual artworks that seamlessly blend digital and physical elements, thereby enhancing public spaces and engaging users with both their environment and the AR content. Key concepts for assessing user experiences in AR environments include immersion, with subcategories that further elaborate on this concept. This research aims to explore the potential of AR as a tool for presenting and evaluating artworks in public spaces, with a particular focus on user engagement and immersion in AR content. Additionally, it seeks to determine whether significant differences in immersion levels exist between specific categories of virtual sculptures. Ten sculptures were displayed as mobile AR experiences in a selected public square. To achieve these objectives, a standardized questionnaire designed to measure immersion in location-based AR applications was adapted, validated, and applied. The results provide valuable insights into user experiences with different categories of AR artworks, such as digitized versus digitally created models and figurative versus abstract representations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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14 pages, 3391 KiB  
Article
Drone Rider: Foot Vibration Stimuli to Enhance Immersion and Flight Sensation in VR
by Kazuya Shimato, Yuta Goto and Shogo Okamoto
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 12019; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142412019 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 676
Abstract
Simulating the experience of flight is a key objective of virtual reality (VR) technology. To enhance the sense of flying and immersion, we developed Drone Rider, a VR system that simulates free-flight atop a drone. In this study, we investigated whether delivering vibratory [...] Read more.
Simulating the experience of flight is a key objective of virtual reality (VR) technology. To enhance the sense of flying and immersion, we developed Drone Rider, a VR system that simulates free-flight atop a drone. In this study, we investigated whether delivering vibratory stimuli to the user’s feet could improve these sensations. While high-frequency drone propeller vibrations typically induce sensory numbness, alternative vibration patterns were explored. In Experiment 1, participants rated 13 different vibration patterns derived from various mechanical sounds, such as those from chainsaws, motorcycles, and washing machines. The motorcycle-based vibrations were most effective in enhancing both the sense of flight and immersion. In Experiment 2, we synthesized new vibration patterns by superimposing the highest-rated vibrations from Experiment 1, but no combination outperformed the original motorcycle vibration. These findings suggest that vibrations with multiple components below 100 Hz may reduce sensory adaptation and enhance the sense of flight and immersion in VR. This work provides valuable insights for developers aiming to optimize haptic feedback in VR flight simulators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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19 pages, 1643 KiB  
Article
Technological Interface Components That Support Accelerated Learning in the Acquisition of Foreign Language Vocabulary
by David Passig, Ganit Eshel Kedmi and Adi Aharoni
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(22), 10436; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210436 - 13 Nov 2024
Viewed by 736
Abstract
There is a need to find innovative learning methods that enable accelerated learning of a foreign language. This study examined the effect of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in acquiring a foreign language, which combines cognitive and emotional stimuli in the background. The study [...] Read more.
There is a need to find innovative learning methods that enable accelerated learning of a foreign language. This study examined the effect of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in acquiring a foreign language, which combines cognitive and emotional stimuli in the background. The study explored two factors related to the acquisition of a foreign language: the duration and scope of the learning process and the depth of internalization of the newly acquired language. Another objective was to assess the learning method in two learning environments, 2D and VR, to determine if the learning environment affects the learning results and leads to better vocabulary retention. One hundred native French speakers, with an average age of 47.5, participated in the study and had no prior knowledge of the newly acquired language. We randomly divided the participants into two groups (2D and VR). They studied 550 words in a new language for five days: 30 min each evening and 15 min in the morning. The post-learning test pointed out that both groups improved their vocabulary scores significantly. Approximately one month after the learning experience, we administered a knowledge retention test to 32 participants and found that the level of knowledge had been retained. Finally, background variables (e.g., gender, age, and previous knowledge of the newly acquired language) did not affect the learning results. The findings indicate that CALL, which integrates background cognitive and emotional stimuli in both learning environments, significantly accelerates learning pace, broadens the scope of newly acquired words, and ensures retention. The level of improvement observed in our study is notably higher than that reported in the literature for studies that had previously evaluated CALL and in-class language acquisition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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20 pages, 8342 KiB  
Article
Portable VR Welding Simulator
by Dariusz Michalak, Magdalena Rozmus, Jarosław Tokarczyk and Kamil Szewerda
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7687; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177687 - 30 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1700
Abstract
In many industries, there is a continuous high demand for skilled welders. Practical training in welding is cost- and time-intensive. To reduce this problem, VR welding simulators have been developed in recent years. They vary in terms of portability, hardware and software components, [...] Read more.
In many industries, there is a continuous high demand for skilled welders. Practical training in welding is cost- and time-intensive. To reduce this problem, VR welding simulators have been developed in recent years. They vary in terms of portability, hardware and software components, and functionalities. In this paper, a VR simulator to support practical training in MIG/MAG welding, as a highly portable and affordable solution, is presented. Its only hardware components are an off-the-shelf mobile VR set, a welding torch, and welding coupons that are manufactured using the FDM 3D printing method. The software part is accessed and used via an Internet browser. An important feature of the simulator is also the possibility to differ immersion in the working environment while carrying out virtual welding, which makes the solution also usable for users prone to cybersickness. The VR welding simulator was refined based on feedback obtained during pilot tests. The test participants found it a useful aid for welders’ training, which justifies further work on its development and integration into the teaching of welding in educational and training units. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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19 pages, 5746 KiB  
Article
Exploring Usability, Emotional Responses, Flow Experience, and Technology Acceptance in VR: A Comparative Analysis of Freeform Creativity and Goal-Directed Training
by Yu-Min Fang
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6737; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156737 - 1 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1557
Abstract
This study compared two virtual reality (VR) interaction modes and assessed differences in characteristics, namely usability, emotional responses, flow experience, technology acceptance, activity effectiveness, preference, and satisfaction, aiming to gain insights for proposing design suggestions. The two types of VR interaction examined were [...] Read more.
This study compared two virtual reality (VR) interaction modes and assessed differences in characteristics, namely usability, emotional responses, flow experience, technology acceptance, activity effectiveness, preference, and satisfaction, aiming to gain insights for proposing design suggestions. The two types of VR interaction examined were freeform creativity, which enabled users to autonomously explore and create using the Gravity Sketch drawing program, and goal-directed training, which involved structured task completion by using a VR dumbbell exercise program developed with Unity. This study involved 33 participants and revealed three key findings. First, both VR modes exhibited excellent results in terms of flow experience, technology acceptance, preference, and satisfaction and evoked strong positive emotions. They also demonstrated shared VR advantages, including overcoming screen constraints and facilitating three-dimensional spatial activities. Second, compared with goal-directed training, freeform creativity elicited greater levels of pleasure, evoked more intense emotional responses, and demonstrated superior performance across related indicators. Third, in terms of usability, goal-directed training surpassed freeform creativity, particularly in overall responsiveness, simplicity, and clarity of information presentation, and learnability, underscoring the importance of enhancing usability for complex tasks in VR application design. These findings offer valuable insights for crafting more appealing, practical, and user-friendly VR systems in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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10 pages, 1219 KiB  
Article
Deceptive Modulation of Actual and Perceived Effort While Walking Using Immersive Virtual Reality: A Teleoanticipatory Approach
by Trent Yamamoto, Trinabh K. Sahni, Corinne A. McCabe, Trevor L. Nguyen, August E. Blatney, Ross J. Lechner, Thalia H. Nguyen, Dominic M. Benna, Jason P. Farrales, Mitchell S. Mologne, Eric V. Neufeld and Brett A. Dolezal
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(14), 6072; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146072 - 12 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1230
Abstract
Virtual reality and technology-driven ‘exergaming’ have grown in tandem to expand the possibilities of exercise. However, few studies have investigated these aspects together in the context of treadmill walking. This study examined the effects of immersive virtual reality (IVR) on heart rate (HR) [...] Read more.
Virtual reality and technology-driven ‘exergaming’ have grown in tandem to expand the possibilities of exercise. However, few studies have investigated these aspects together in the context of treadmill walking. This study examined the effects of immersive virtual reality (IVR) on heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) while walking on a treadmill at three different speeds, only one of which was disclosed to participants. Using a single-blinded, randomized control trial with a crossover research design, sixteen college-aged adults (eight females, mean age of 20.5 ± 1.2 years) were randomly assigned a testing order for six trials of treadmill walking. Three 10 min trials were conducted with IVR and three were conducted without on two separate days; a 3 min break was given in between trials. Borg RPE scores were assessed after each trial, while HR was monitored throughout. The IVR trials produced lower mean RPE scores in comparison to the non-IVR group at 3.5 and 3.7 mph. The IVR trials also yielded a lower mean HR compared to the non-IVR trials at the highest speed of 3.7 mph. These findings suggest that IVR may be able to attenuate RPE scores and HR while walking on a treadmill. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)
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