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Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage
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Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Earth Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2022) | Viewed by 16215

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Alba Patrizia Santo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via A. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence, Italy
Interests: architectural heritage; materials; characterization; diagnostics; conservation; analytical techniques

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are organizing a Special Issue that may be of interest to you. As Guest Editor, I cordially invite you to submit a manuscript for consideration and publication in the Special Issue “Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage”. This Special Issue will be published in Applied Sciences (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci), an open access journal that covers all aspects of applied natural sciences. 

In historic architecture, which includes numerous kinds of monuments and ancient buildings, natural stone was used as the main construction material due to its natural beauty, availability, and durability. Geomaterials are, however, not everlasting; exposed as natural outcrops or in a building or monument, they are subject to the destructive physical, chemical, biological, and anthropogenic weathering. These cannot be viewed as independent processes since complex interactions operate between them and the stone itself. The compositional, physical, and mechanical characterization of the different types of materials is indispensable to obtain information on the current condition, environmental influence, and change mechanism due to natural aging, including biodeterioration, or human‐made decay processes. Architectural Heritage represents the historical and cultural memory of our cities; its preservation and restoration are a worldwide issue. Natural stone is not only an old important component of cultural works but also a modern building material that will surely play a significant role in heritage in the future; the possible applications have been increasing over time, and today, the use of natural stones and their derived artificial materials, unlike in the past, requires that requirements be met for the intended purpose. This Special Volume focuses on the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of compositional, physical, and mechanical properties of dimension stones, thus emphasizing the important role played by petrography, geochemistry, and geomechanics to reveal the intimate relationships between the different parameters characterizing any stone.

Dr. Alba Patrizia Santo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • architectural heritage
  • materials
  • characterization
  • diagnostics
  • conservation
  • analytical techniques

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

3 pages, 162 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial on the Special Issue “Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage”
by Alba Patrizia Santo
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(15), 8926; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158926 - 3 Aug 2023
Viewed by 681
Abstract
In historical architecture, which includes many types of monuments and ancient buildings, natural stone was used as the main building material because of its natural beauty, availability and durability [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 9416 KiB  
Article
The Alteration of Giglio Island Granite: Relevance to the Conservation of Monumental Architecture
by Fabio Fratini, Silvia Rescic, Oana Adriana Cuzman and Paolo Pierattini
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(9), 4588; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12094588 - 30 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1790
Abstract
The research examines the alteration phenomena of Giglio island granite, a rock quarried by Romans from the 3rd century, used for columns in the Italian peninsula and later reemployed in many Christian religious buildings. The study has shown that already in the bedrock [...] Read more.
The research examines the alteration phenomena of Giglio island granite, a rock quarried by Romans from the 3rd century, used for columns in the Italian peninsula and later reemployed in many Christian religious buildings. The study has shown that already in the bedrock there are small percentages of clay minerals. Starting from this condition, the alteration develops by an increase in porosity, which in turn favours the establishment of a slight hydrolysis of the silicates with a decrease in Na, Ca, and K, in accordance with the sericitisation process. The alteration proceeds with a further increase in porosity, apparently not related to a real loss of cohesion, which, however, occurs shortly after, highlighting the necessity of a continuous monitoring of the state of conservation of the material in the architectural heritage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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16 pages, 7225 KiB  
Article
Insights into Della Robbia’s Terracotta Monument to Cardinal Federighi: Raw Materials and Technologies
by Donata Magrini, Emma Cantisani, Silvia Vettori and Kaare Lund Rasmussen
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(9), 4304; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12094304 - 24 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2314
Abstract
The present work comprises the application of a multi-analytical strategy based on the combination of several non-destructive and micro-invasive methodologies for the examination of the glazed tiles from the tomb of Benozzo Federighi made by Luca della Robbia. The marble tomb is framed [...] Read more.
The present work comprises the application of a multi-analytical strategy based on the combination of several non-destructive and micro-invasive methodologies for the examination of the glazed tiles from the tomb of Benozzo Federighi made by Luca della Robbia. The marble tomb is framed by flat glazed terracotta tiles, each ornamented with naturalistically depicted flowers. The tiles are assembled like an “opus sectile” and their background is gilded. The leaf is incorporated on the top of the glaze, differently by traditional gilding technique as in previous glazed works of della Robbia. The identification methodology integrates the results from spot analyses such as UV-vis reflectance spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence, with those obtained on tiny samples by X-ray diffraction, electron microscopic observations, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and firing temperature analysis. The adopted analytical protocol allowed us to clarify peculiarities of the artist’s technique and of the manufacturing technology used to create the terracotta and gilded glazed tiles. The terracotta body shows main phases related with Ca-rich ceramic body and the glaze results Pb-based and additioned with Sn as an opacifier. Co, Pb-Sb and Cu were identified as glazes colouring agents. The hypothesis on the use of the “third firing” technique for gilding tiles is explored in the text. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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19 pages, 9726 KiB  
Article
A Multidisciplinary Methodology for Technological Knowledge, Characterization and Diagnostics: Sandstone Facades in Florentine Architectural Heritage
by Irene Centauro, Jacopo Giuseppe Vitale, Sara Calandra, Teresa Salvatici, Claudio Natali, Michele Coppola, Emanuele Intrieri and Carlo Alberto Garzonio
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(9), 4266; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12094266 - 23 Apr 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2717
Abstract
The Historic Center of Florence, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, includes many examples of architecture characterized by rough-hewn rusticated block facades—a very common masonry technique in the Florentine Renaissance—made in Pietraforte sandstone. The latter features numerous criticalities related to its intrinsic characteristics and [...] Read more.
The Historic Center of Florence, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, includes many examples of architecture characterized by rough-hewn rusticated block facades—a very common masonry technique in the Florentine Renaissance—made in Pietraforte sandstone. The latter features numerous criticalities related to its intrinsic characteristics and to decay phenomena that are due to weathering and pollution. A multidisciplinary methodology has been developed starting from historic analysis and architectural survey to a complete optometric, mechanical, physical, mineralogical, and petrographic characterization of rough-hewn rusticated blocks, applied to the case study of the Palazzo Medici Riccardi facades. The studies performed in this work cover several research fields, from architecture to geology, going through material diagnostics, and aim at improving knowledge and designing new restoration solutions for Pietraforte building-material criticalities. The research proposes an operative protocol aimed at supporting restoration projects and monitoring plans, with the aim to protect historical, architectural, and artistic cultural heritage and to safeguard the people who visit the city of Florence every year. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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26 pages, 5692 KiB  
Article
The San Giovanni Baptistery in Florence (Italy): Assessment of the State of Conservation of Surfaces and Characterization of Stone Materials
by Sara Calandra, Emma Cantisani, Silvia Vettori, Marilena Ricci, Beatrice Agostini and Carlo Alberto Garzonio
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 4050; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12084050 - 16 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2079
Abstract
During the last restoration campaign of the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence (Italy), the assessment of the state of conservation of external surfaces was performed, with a multi-analytical approach, in order to support the conservation and restoration treatments. Black crusts, red staining, [...] Read more.
During the last restoration campaign of the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence (Italy), the assessment of the state of conservation of external surfaces was performed, with a multi-analytical approach, in order to support the conservation and restoration treatments. Black crusts, red staining, sulphation, and organic patinas were identified. Moreover, a complete characterization of marble cladding, bricks, and mortars was carried out. A geochemical and minero-petrographic approach was used in order to classify and assess the provenance of marbles, and define raw materials and technologies of the production for bricks and mortars. Provenances from Italy (Carrara and Lasa marbles) and from Greece (Hymettus and Pentelicum marbles) were identified and attributed to different construction phases, restoration interventions, and re-use of ancient materials. For mortars, the obtained data suggested the use of local materials and traditional technologies for the production. Overall, two different minero-petrographic typologies were identified for the analyzed bricks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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13 pages, 5748 KiB  
Article
The Preparatory Layers in the Etruscan Paintings of the Tomba dei Demoni Alati in the Sovana Necropolis (Southern Tuscany, Italy)
by Elena Pecchioni, Pasquino Pallecchi, Gianna Giachi, Sara Calandra and Alba P. Santo
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(7), 3542; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073542 - 30 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2029
Abstract
The Tomba dei Demoni Alati is located in the Etruscan necropolis of Sovana (Grosseto, Southern Tuscany, Italy). At the end of the 1990s, excavation revealed remains of this aedicule tomb, carved into red tuff; in 2004, further excavation highlighted new important figurative elements. [...] Read more.
The Tomba dei Demoni Alati is located in the Etruscan necropolis of Sovana (Grosseto, Southern Tuscany, Italy). At the end of the 1990s, excavation revealed remains of this aedicule tomb, carved into red tuff; in 2004, further excavation highlighted new important figurative elements. The Etruscans used different methods to decorate the rock surfaces of the tomb, which were particularly difficult to paint. For this reason, the porous and irregular surface of the tuff was modelled and coated with specific materials. The aim of this work was to study the materials and manufacturing techniques of the preparatory layers applied onto the rock surface in the Tomba dei Demoni Alati. Minero-petrographic, chemical, and micro-chemical characterization of the layers was carried out. The obtained results suggest that different methods were used to prepare the tomb surfaces to be painted. In particular, in the niche of the tomb, two preparatory layers were found: a Ca-based plaster covers the rock; above it, a thin white Ca lime layer was applied. In the sculptures inside the niche, the colors were applied onto two finishing white Ca lime layers of similar composition, whereas, in the decorations of the sculptured surfaces on the outside, paint layers were laid onto a thin white silica stratum. The data allow us to determine the use of plaster, for the first time, in Tuscany, as well as the discovery of a preparation layer never before found in any other local archaeological context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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13 pages, 5653 KiB  
Article
Technical Analysis of the Masonry of the Bargello’ Palace, Florence (Italy)
by Massimo Coli, Anna Livia Ciuffreda and Tessa Donigaglia
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(5), 2615; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052615 - 3 Mar 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1740
Abstract
This study defines the assemblage, materials, and mechanical parameter of the XIV century Bargello Palace at Florence (Italy). For this purpose, according to the rule in force, NDT and LDT had been performed on the Bargello walls, namely: direct observations, georadar, ultrasonic, thermic, [...] Read more.
This study defines the assemblage, materials, and mechanical parameter of the XIV century Bargello Palace at Florence (Italy). For this purpose, according to the rule in force, NDT and LDT had been performed on the Bargello walls, namely: direct observations, georadar, ultrasonic, thermic, DAC-test, and endoscopy. The results outline that the Bargello masonries are well done, as use in Florence in the XIV–XV centuries; they are solid walls, made in tightly sealed flat quoins, with external facing and internal plastering, and with a percentage of stones to mortar equal to about 70%. The results allow assigning of the Bargello’s masonry to one of the categories provided by the rules in force, with the relative mechanical parameter values for the need of a seismic verification assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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13 pages, 3405 KiB  
Article
Decay Process of Serpentinite: The Case of the San Giovanni Baptistery (Florence, Italy) Pavement
by Alba Patrizia Santo, Beatrice Agostini, Carlo Alberto Garzonio, Elena Pecchioni and Teresa Salvatici
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12020861 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1887
Abstract
Serpentinite is a low-grade metamorphic rock derived from the transformation of ultramafic rocks. Mainly because of its aesthetic characteristics it has been widely used as a building and ornamental stone. “Verde di Prato” is the most common local name used in Tuscany to [...] Read more.
Serpentinite is a low-grade metamorphic rock derived from the transformation of ultramafic rocks. Mainly because of its aesthetic characteristics it has been widely used as a building and ornamental stone. “Verde di Prato” is the most common local name used in Tuscany to refer to this type of rock, historically quarried in this area and used for many centuries in a large number of monuments of this region. In this paper, we report the results of a study carried out on the serpentinite from the pavement of the Florence baptistery, to properly characterize it from a physical point of view, describe the rock conservation state, and understand the phenomena responsible for its decay. The studied rock displays numerous forms of decay including fractures, loss of material, erosion, discolouration and efflorescence. X-ray diffractometer analyses of the efflorescence revealed the presence of numerous salts whose formation can be imputed to multiple, possibly concomitant, causes such as the high relative humidity and the variation of inside temperature, the presence of concrete and/or cementitious mortars in the subsoil, atmospheric pollution and the burial ground existing close the baptistery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Petrography, Geochemistry, and Geomechanics to Architectural Heritage)
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