Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas

Dear Colleagues,

Theory of mind (TOM) is a critical human skill. Without it, humans would not be able to communicate, form relationships or understand and predict others’ intentions. Much research in the area has focused on examining TOM development in young children and TOM impairments in clinical populations. However, renewed interest in the field has sparked a wave of research that examines TOM and related constructs (e.g., social cognition, mentalizing, social competence, common ground, perspective-taking) in a number of areas, including (a) changes in TOM in later adulthood, (b) individual differences in adult TOM, (c) the role of culture and language in TOM performance, (d) issues relating to TOM measurement validity and reliability and (e) the real-world effects of individual differences in TOM.

However, this increasing amount of research is rarely shared intra- and trans-disciplinarily, leading to disjointed findings in the field and hindering progress on TOM. Accordingly, this Special Issue aims to provide an outlet for researchers studying TOM across different psychological and related areas to share their work, and calls for papers focused on describing innovative findings across populations and/or methodological approaches, identifying issues in the state of the field and presenting research that cuts across niche areas to inform theory more broadly.

Dr. Ester Navarro
Guest Editor

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• theory of mind
• social cognition
• empathy
• social competence
• perspective-taking
• social interaction
• cooperation
• communication
• embodied cognition
• common ground
• mentalizing

Title: Theory of Mind Markers in Spontaneous Speech: a Narrative Review
Authors: Chaimaa El Mouslih; Vegas Hodgins; Debra Titone
Affiliation: 1 Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; 2 Montreal Bilingualism Initiative, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Abstract: The intricate relationship between theory of mind (ToM) and language has been well-established across various fields. Developing methods to identify precise markers of ToM (i.e., an abstract cognitive skill) in people’s spontaneous speech output (i.e., a concrete measure) is crucial for a variety of applications. We present a narrative review that provides an overview of speech markers used to assess ToM abilities based on a selection of experimental studies identified through a PSYCINFO search of relevant keywords. We aim to facilitate the measurement of mentalizing abilities in a manner that will contribute to a deeper understanding of the interplay between language and ToM.

Title: Monkey do, monkey see? The effect of imitation strategies on visuo-spatial perspective-taking
Authors: Francois Quesque
Affiliation: Inserm French Institute of Health and Medical Research
Abstract: Classical conceptions suppose that the existence of common representations between agents constitutes the basis to represent the world from others’ perspective. Alternatively, recent contributions support that the ability to distinguish self- from other’s representation would rather be at the origins of social inferences abilities. In the present study we compare the effects on visual perspective-taking of two types of imitation training: Mirror imitation (for which gesture could be represented in common referential) and Anatomically congruent imitation (which require not only to represent the gesture of the model but also to distinguish between self and other’s body representations).

Title: Exposure to multiple-perspective illusions favours less ego-centered mental states ascription
Authors: Yves Rossetti
Affiliation: Lyon Neuroscience research Centre (CRNL) Inserm U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Trajectoires team, 95 bd Pinel. 69676 Bron Cedex, France Kyoto Advanced University of Science, Ukyo-ku Yamanouchi Gotannda-cho 18, Kyoto, Japan
Abstract: Successful social interactions require agents to recognize that others' perspectives (point of views, beliefs, knowledge,...) may differ from their own and that we do not have access to others' private mental states. Decentering from our ego-centred perspective of the world is however costly and non-spontaneous. In the present study, we exposed participants to ambiguous 3D objects that give rise to two specific interpretations depending on the point of view. We expect that this low-level embodied experience that perception is tied to their viewing point may generalize beyond the spatial level and enhance the consideration of others’ cognitive representations.

Title: The Relationship between Language and Theory of Mind: A Comprehensive Investigation in School-age Children
Authors: Chi-Lin Yu; Ziqian Shen
Affiliation: 1 Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University 2 Department of Psychology, University of Michigan
Abstract: The relationship between language and theory-of-mind (ToM) development remains a crucial but unresolved issue in behavioral sciences. Previous research has mainly concentrated on two language skills — vocabulary and sentence comprehension — and a single ToM milestone — false belief understanding. To offer a more comprehensive perspective, we examine this relationship through a spectrum of language skills — from morphological and phonological awareness, single-word reading skills, to passage comprehension — and various ToM domains — belief, emotion, intention, desire, knowledge, and perception — in 246 linguistically-diverse school-age children (111 females; mean-age=9.85). We aim to broaden our understanding of language and ToM's multifaceted connections through a developmental lens.

Title: Compassion in Mexico and the United States
Authors: Birgit Koopmann-Holm; RUIZ MENDEZ DAVID; Liam Llerena
Affiliation: Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, United States
Abstract: Individual and cultural differences exist in how people conceptualize compassion. The present paper examines cultural differences between U.S. Americans and Mexicans. Participants completed a reverse correlation task to assess their conceptualizations of a compassionate face and described what they consider to be a compassionate response. Furthermore, participants indicated their motivation to avoid feeling negative. As predicted, because Mexicans want to avoid feeling negative less than U.S. Americans do, for them, a compassionate response entails more emotion sharing than for U.S. Americans, which is associated with conceptualizing a compassionate face as one that mirrors distress more compared to U.S. Americans.

Title: Interplay of Bilingualism and Cultural exposure in Adult Theory of Mind
Authors: Esther Navarro; Manali Pathare
Affiliation: Department of Psychology, St. John’s College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
Abstract: Understanding others' perspectives, or Theory of Mind (ToM), is a critical cognitive skill essential for social competence and effective interpersonal interactions (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). Although ToM is present in varying degrees across individuals, research indicates that linguistic factors, particularly bilingualism, can significantly influence its expression. For example, Navarro and Conway (2021) demonstrated that adult bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in perspective-taking tasks, with additional findings suggesting that exposure to multiple cultures further enhances ToM performance. The present study seeks to replicate these findings and explore the relationship between adult ToM, cultural exposure, and bilingual fluency. We predict that higher levels of bilingual fluency will predict superior perspective-taking abilities. This study aims to contribute to the understanding of how language and cultural context shape cognitive processes related to social understanding.

Title: AN INTERPLAY BETWEEN THEORY OF MIND, TASK COMPLEXITY, AND SPEECH CONNECTEDNESS IN ADULT BILINGUALS
Authors: Fernanda Cunha; Natália Bezerra Mota; Janaina Weissheimer
Affiliation: Department of Modern Foreign Languages, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of task complexity and individual differences in Theory of Mind (ToM) on speech connectedness. Thirty-three English-Portuguese bilinguals produced oral narratives based on more or less complex comic strips and had their ToM assessed by the Faux-Pas Test. The speech data were analyzed using Speech Graphs, considering connectedness and repetition attributes. As predicted, participants produced more connected speech when performing under the less complex task condition. However, ToM did not mediate this relationship. We discuss the need to develop more sensitive measures of ToM, having in consideration the case of typical bilingual adults.

Title: behavioral intervention on social cognition in children and adolescents with autism: an overview
Author: Esposito
Highlights: behavioral interventions in social cognition: intentions, perspectives, emotion, helping effective training for children and adolescents with ASD: strengths and weakness narrative review for clinical staff

Title: Meta-Analytic Review: The relationship of bilingualism with theory of mind in adulthood
Authors: Rowena Xia; Brian W. Haas
Affiliation: Department of Psychology，Concordia College，USA Department of Psychology，University of Georgia, USA
Abstract: Given the focus of studies on bilingualism and theory of mind being primarily focused on childhood development, there is a lack of understanding of what the consensus shows for what the relationship is in adults. A meta-analysis will be conducted to draw conclusions on whether there is a bilingual advantage found in adults across studies that have been conducted. Additionally, how the relationship of bilingualism and theory of mind has been studied in adults in terms of methodology, type of theory of mind task, assessment types for bilingualism will be reviewed and analyzed.

Title: Navigating social interactions and deviance in groups with perspective-taking
Authors: Halfmann, E.; Thürmer, J. L.
Affiliation: 1Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Austria 2Justus-Liebig University of Giessen, Germany 3Private University Seeburg Castle, Austria
Abstract: Understanding other’s thoughts and feelings is key for managing social interactions, as it would otherwise be hard to understand behaviors and opinions that differ from our own (cf. Galinsky et al., 2005; Perner, 1988). Humans interact in diverse groups, including members with different abilities, motivations, and opinions. Group members must cooperate and coordinate member behavior to successfully perform group tasks, and achieve collective goals, but face the dilemma of depending on individual contributions (cf. Kerr, 1983; Levine & Moreland, 1994). In groups and teams, members can have diverging goals that may conflict with group goals. In the current paper, we argue that the group must (and can) infer intentions (goals) vis-à-vis the group to regulate member behavior. Based on empirical research investigating the role of perspective-taking in team cooperation, we discuss our collective action control perspective (Thürmer et al., 2024) with a focus on attributed intent. We build on and integrate a host of research in the fields of Theory of Mind, attribution of intent, and the reactions to deviance in groups. The broader concept of Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to a set of interrelated skills that enable people to understand the mind of others (Wellman, 2014). One process related to ToM—perspective-taking— has been operationalized in various ways but is assumed to be the most important aspect of cooperative interactions (Johnson, 1975). The capacity to consider the world from another person's viewpoint and infer the content of their perceptions, thoughts, and feelings (Davis, 1983) plays a crucial role in shaping the problem-solving and decision-making abilities, and performance quality of teams. It is a critical mechanism to coordinate behavior with others and to form social bonds (Galinsky et al., 2005). Without perspective-taking, interactions can result in conflict, disagreement, or suboptimal decisions (Caruso et al., 2006; Todd & Galinsky, 2014). Theories on social perceptions and classic attribution research have emerged largely independently of ToM approaches, even though they are conceptually linked. Inferring reasons for actions is an act of perspective-taking (Malle, 2011), and recent evidence and theorizing indicate that individuals commonly ascribe intentions (or goals) to others, rather than stable traits to explain others' behavior (cf. Malle, 2011; Moskowitz & Olcaysoy Okten, 2016). Individuals observe their interaction partners closely and draw causal conclusions to infer the intentionality of their behavior (cf. Malle & Holbrook, 2012; Weiner, 1985). Higher-order (or long-term) intentions—such as pro-group intent—are key drivers of behavior and thus may be attributed to actors (Thürmer et al., 2024). We guide our discussion of ToM and attribution theory by highlighting emergent research of responses to high and low performers (performance deviants). Groups are sensitive to individuals exerting less effort when working in a group as this threatens group goal attainment and productivity (cf. Karau & Wilhau, 2020). Accordingly, the pro-group intent attributed to them is an important antecedent of group reaction (Thürmer & Kunze, 2023). We discuss how these attribution processes and according responses may shape group dynamics and discuss pertinent future research.

Title: Comparing brain activation for social cognition and social interaction tasks: Where do processes overlap?
Authors: Matthias Schurz
Affiliation: Department of Psychology and Digital Science Center, University of Innsbruck
Abstract: The present review summarizes our previous work identifying three brain activation maps (activation patterns) representing common factors underlying multiple forms of mentalizing (Theory of Mind) and empathy. We focus on an "intermediate" type of brain activation found in that work, which co-activates distinct brain networks typically assumed to be exclusively linked to mentalizing or empathy. Based on previous findings, we argue that this co-activation pattern may indicate more ecologically valid types of social cognition tasks. To evaluate this idea, we compare the brain activation patterns from our meta-analysis to the results from a previously published meta-analysis on the neural correlates of social interaction. Results from this comparison broadly confirm the suggested functional overlaps and identify which brain areas and associated networks are most frequently co-activated across different forms of social cognition and social interaction. Based on this evidence, we discuss the potential relevance of "intermediate" cognitive-affective tasks for studying social cognition.

Title: Cautionary tales from the gamification of perspective taking: A plea for combined methods in common ground research
Authors: Paula Rubio-Fernandez; Daniel W. Harris
Affiliation: Multimodal Language Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
Abstract: We review recent Theory of Mind studies on visual perspective taking, including Level 1 and Level 2 perspective taking, and experimental paradigms such as the Dot task, the 6 vs 9 task and the social N400. In light of the highly instruction-dependent results of these tasks, we draw some methodological conclusions from those studies, before focusing on the Director task—another perspective-taking paradigm from the experimental pragmatics literature. The Director task was originally designed to investigate the use of common ground (or shared knowledge) in referential communication, but over the years has become a standard test of Theory of Mind. We critically review the theoretical conclusions that have been drawn from the results of the Director task and, given their limited generalisability to everyday communication, call for the use of multiple experimental methods in common ground research. In particular, we advocate for the study of demonstrative use (words like ‘this’ and ‘that’ in English) and pointing gestures during naturalistic face-to-face referential communication, ideally employing dual eye-tracking technology to capture eye-contact and gaze direction/ following. To illustrate the value of such a methodological approach, we report the results of a cross-linguistic study of demonstrative choice in English, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, and discuss the potential gains of combining laboratory tasks with naturalistic communicative interaction in Theory of Mind and pragmatics research.

Title: Effects of joint action observation on children's imitation
Authors: Nejra Rizvanović; Ildikó Király; Natalie Sebanz
Affiliation: 1. Department of Cognitive Science, Central European University 2. Department of Cognitive Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University
Abstract: Grasping others' intentions from their actions is essential for learning, as it enhances the ability to identify collaborative acts and anticipate others’ actions, facilitating effective coordination toward shared goals. From a young age, children seem to recognize when others are working together based on their interactions and use this understanding to inform their own learning. Although much of early learning occurs in joint contexts, little attention has been devoted to understanding how children learn by participating in joint actions and by observing others acting together. Using a puzzle box paradigm, we tested 3-6 year old children’s imitation of an inefficient performance following individual and joint demonstrations in which the inefficient performance did or did not involve bimanual or joint coordination. This allowed us to test whether the tendency to overimitate extends to joint actions, and how action coordination modulates imitative behavior. We found that overimitation extends to joint actions, indicated by similar rates of inefficient copying following individual and joint action demonstrations. Furthermore, our results suggest that action coordination did not play a significant role in modulating children’s tendency to overimitate. Taken together, the results of the study advance our understanding of how learning occurs in social interactions.