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Biomechanics
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Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement
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Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement

A special issue of Biomechanics (ISSN 2673-7078). This special issue belongs to the section "Gait and Posture Biomechanics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 May 2025 | Viewed by 8913

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Elissavet Rousanoglou

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Sports Biomechanics Lab, Department of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 157 72 Athens, Greece
Interests: biomechanics; rhythmic movement; postural stability; muscle mechanics
Dr. John Buckley

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biomedical & Electronics Engineering, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK
Interests: clinical biomechanics; locomotion; lower-limb prosthetics; movement control
Dr. Alan Godfrey

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department Computer Science, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 8ST, UK
Interests: wearable systems; physiological monitoring; digital biomarkers; gait
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The development of low-cost, commercial MEMS inertial sensors has led to rapid growth in research on the application of these sensors for the assessment of daily human movement, sport and exercise.

The incorporation of inertial sensors in smartphones and, more recently, in smartwatches has not only driven research, but it has also broadened their application to detecting a wide range of human movements; for example, they are used in occupational, clinical and rehabilitation settings; movement variability; postural and motor control; and movement entrainment to rhythmic acoustic stimuli.

This Special Issue welcomes original research and review papers covering inertial sensing of the full span of human movement.

Dr. Elissavet Rousanoglou
Dr. John Buckley
Dr. Alan Godfrey
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biomechanics is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1000 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • inertial sensors
  • gyroscopes
  • accelerometers
  • physical activity
  • clinical applications
  • occupational applications
  • rehabilitation
  • sport applications
  • smartphone sensors
  • postural control
  • balance—postural stability
  • rhythmic movement

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

10 pages, 1617 KiB  
Article
Retention and Transfer of Fractal Gait Training
by Logan J. Frame, Nikita A. Kuznetsov, Louisa D. Raisbeck and Christopher K. Rhea
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 720-729; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040052 - 15 Nov 2024
Viewed by 341
Abstract
Background/Purpose: Fractal gait patterns have been shown to be modifiable, but the extent to which they are retained and transferred to new contexts is relatively unknown. This study aimed to close those gaps by enrolling participants (N = 23) in a seven-day fractal [...] Read more.
Background/Purpose: Fractal gait patterns have been shown to be modifiable, but the extent to which they are retained and transferred to new contexts is relatively unknown. This study aimed to close those gaps by enrolling participants (N = 23) in a seven-day fractal gait training program. Methods: Building on related work, the fractal gait training occurred on a treadmill over a 10-min period. Before and after the treadmill training, each participant walked for 10 min overground without the fractal stimulus used during training. The daily post-test was used to examine immediate retention and transfer of the fractal gait patterns from the treadmill to overground. The pre-tests in days 2–7 were used to examine the extent to which the fractal gait patterns from the preceding day were retained 24 h later. Inertial measurement units were used to measure stride time so a consistent measurement method could be employed in the treadmill and overground phases of the study. Results: Our results showed that multiple days of treadmill training led to elevated fractal patterns, indicating a positive training effect. However, the positive training effect observed on the treadmill did not transfer to overground walking. Conclusions: Collectively, the data show that fractal patterns in gait are modifiable across multiple days of training, but the transferability of these patterns to new contexts needs to be further explored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement)
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10 pages, 3594 KiB  
Article
Effects of Gait Speed and Sole Adjustment on Shoe–Floor Angles: Measurement Using Shoe-Type Sensor
by Yu Hashiguchi, Tsuguru Numabe and Ryosuke Goto
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 595-604; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040042 - 1 Oct 2024
Viewed by 456
Abstract
Background: Assessment of walking with shoes is important for understanding different types of walking in various environments. Methods: In this study, a shoe-type sensor was used to demonstrate the shoe–floor angle in fifteen participants who walked on a treadmill under varying gait speed [...] Read more.
Background: Assessment of walking with shoes is important for understanding different types of walking in various environments. Methods: In this study, a shoe-type sensor was used to demonstrate the shoe–floor angle in fifteen participants who walked on a treadmill under varying gait speed and sole adjustments, lifting one side of the sole. The shoe–floor angle in the sagittal; the angle of toe-up (θTup) and toe-down (θTdown) and frontal planes; and the angle of pronation (θPro) and supination (θSup) were calculated, and angles at the initial contact and maximum angles were extracted. Results: The results showed that most angles significantly increased with an increase in the gait speed (θTup and θTdown; p < 0.01 both, θPro and θSup; p < 0.02 and 0.04). Conversely, only the supination angle at the initial contact changed significantly, owing to the tilt of the sole (p < 0.01). Conclusion: Shoe movements were more strongly affected by gait speed than by sole adjustment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement)
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17 pages, 2796 KiB  
Article
Concurrent Validity of Depth-Sensor-Based Quantification of Compensatory Movements during the Swing Phase of Gait in Healthy Individuals
by Kento Kusuda, Shigehito Matsubara, Daisuke Noguchi, Moe Kuwahara, Hiroomi Hamasaki, Toshihiro Miwa, Toru Maeda, Toshihito Nakanishi, Shogo Ninomiya and Keita Honda
Biomechanics 2024, 4(3), 411-427; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4030028 - 8 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1003
Abstract
The advancement in depth-sensor technology increased the potential for the clinical use of markerless three-dimensional motion analysis (3DMA); however, the accurate quantification of depth-sensor-based 3DMA on gait characteristics deviating from normal patterns is unclear. This study investigated the concurrent validity of the measurements [...] Read more.
The advancement in depth-sensor technology increased the potential for the clinical use of markerless three-dimensional motion analysis (3DMA); however, the accurate quantification of depth-sensor-based 3DMA on gait characteristics deviating from normal patterns is unclear. This study investigated the concurrent validity of the measurements of compensatory movements measured by depth-sensor-based 3DMA compared to those measured by marker-based 3DMA. We induced swing-phase compensatory movements due to insufficient toe clearance by restricting unilateral ankle and knee joint movements in healthy individuals. Thirty-two healthy young adults (nineteen males, aged 20.4 ± 2.0 years, height 164.4 ± 9.8 cm, weight 60.0 ± 9.3 kg [average ± standard deviation]) walked the 6 m walkway in slow speed, very slow speed, and knee–ankle–foot orthosis (KAFO; participants wore KAFOs on the right leg) conditions. Gait kinematics were measured with marker-based and depth-sensor-based 3DMA systems. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC3,1) was used to measure the relative agreement between depth-sensor-based and marker-based 3DMA and demonstrated good or moderate validity for swing-phase compensatory movement measurement. Additionally, the ICC2,1 measured absolute agreement between the systems and showed lower validity than the ICC3,1. The measurement errors for contralateral vaulting, trunk lateral flexion, hip hiking, swing-side hip abduction, and circumduction between instruments were 0.01 m, 1.30°, 1.99°, 2.37°, and 1.53°, respectively. Depth-sensor-based 3DMA is useful for determining swing-phase compensatory movements, although the possibility of missing a slight measurement error of 1–2° must be considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement)
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11 pages, 1646 KiB  
Article
Mimicking an Asymmetrically Walking Visual Cue Alters Gait Symmetry in Healthy Adults
by Krista G. Clark, Louisa D. Raisbeck, Scott E. Ross and Christopher K. Rhea
Biomechanics 2024, 4(2), 346-356; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4020024 - 3 Jun 2024
Viewed by 957
Abstract
Gait asymmetries are a common problem in clinical populations, such as those with a history of stroke or Parkinson’s disease. The use of a split-belt treadmill is one way to enhance gait symmetry but relies on specialty (and typically expensive) equipment. Alternatively, visual [...] Read more.
Gait asymmetries are a common problem in clinical populations, such as those with a history of stroke or Parkinson’s disease. The use of a split-belt treadmill is one way to enhance gait symmetry but relies on specialty (and typically expensive) equipment. Alternatively, visual cues have been shown as a method to alter gait mechanics, but their utility in altering gait symmetry has been relatively understudied. Before deploying this method to clinical populations, a proof-of-concept study is needed to explore using visual cues to alter gait symmetry in healthy adults. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which healthy adults could synchronize to an asymmetric visual cue with a small or large gait asymmetry using wearable sensors to measure gait asymmetries. Seventy-two healthy adults (ages: 23.89 ± 6.08 years) walked on the treadmill for two conditions: with and without the visual cue. Each walking condition lasted 10 min at the participant’s preferred walking speed. Inertial sensors were used to measure gait asymmetries. Some participants did not respond to the visual cue, and groups were separated into responders and non-responders. Participants in the small and large asymmetry-responder groups exhibited statistically significant increased asymmetries in single limb support % (p < 0.01) and step duration (s) (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, respectively). Only the large asymmetry-responder group showed statistically significant (p < 0.01) increased asymmetries in stride length. Overall, asymmetrical walking visual cues can alter gait asymmetries, and inertial sensors were sensitive enough to detect small changes in gait asymmetries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement)
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21 pages, 3491 KiB  
Article
Inertial Sensing of the Abdominal Wall Kinematics during Diaphragmatic Breathing in Head Standing
by Elissavet Rousanoglou, Apostolina Foskolou, Analina Emmanouil and Konstantinos Boudolos
Biomechanics 2024, 4(1), 63-83; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4010005 - 2 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 992
Abstract
Head standing (HS) in concurrence with diaphragmatic breathing is an atypical deviation from daily activity, yet commonly practiced. The study aimed at the inertially sensed effect of diaphragmatic versus normal breathing on the abdomen wall kinematics during HS. Twenty-eight men and women maintained [...] Read more.
Head standing (HS) in concurrence with diaphragmatic breathing is an atypical deviation from daily activity, yet commonly practiced. The study aimed at the inertially sensed effect of diaphragmatic versus normal breathing on the abdomen wall kinematics during HS. Twenty-eight men and women maintained HS and erect standing (ES) under normal and diaphragmatic breathing. An inertial sensor (LORD MicroStrain®, 3DM-GX3®-45, 2 cm above the umbilicus, 100 Hz, MicroStrain, Williston, VT, USA) recorded the 3D abdomen wall angular displacement (AD) (bandpass filter (0.1–0.5 Hz)). ANOVAs (p ≤ 0.05, SPSS 28.0) were applied to the extracted variables (AD path: magnitude, individual variability-%CVind, and diaphragmatic to normal ratio). Reliability measures (ICC and %SEM) and the minimal detectable change (%MDC90) were estimated. Diaphragmatic breathing increased the AD path (p ≤ 0.05) with the diaphragmatic to normal ratio being lower in HS (p ≤ 0.05). The similar AD time series (cross-correlations at p ≤ 0.05) and the ICCs (>0.80) indicated excellent reliability with the similar across conditions %CVind (p ≤ 0.05), further enhancing reliability. The %MDC90 was consistently higher than the %SEM upper boundary, indicating the differences as “real” ones. The results contribute to the limited data concerning a widely practiced atypical deviation from daily activity, as HS in concurrence with diaphragmatic breathing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement)
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13 pages, 2204 KiB  
Article
An Automated Approach to Instrumenting the Up-on-the-Toes Test(s)
by Sarah Aruje Zahid, Yunus Celik, Alan Godfrey and John G. Buckley
Biomechanics 2023, 3(3), 278-290; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics3030024 - 26 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1500
Abstract
Normal ankle function provides a key contribution to everyday activities, particularly step/stair ascent and descent, where many falls occur. The rising to up-on-the-toes (UTT) 30 second test (UTT-30) is used in the clinical assessment of ankle muscle strength/function and endurance and is typically [...] Read more.
Normal ankle function provides a key contribution to everyday activities, particularly step/stair ascent and descent, where many falls occur. The rising to up-on-the-toes (UTT) 30 second test (UTT-30) is used in the clinical assessment of ankle muscle strength/function and endurance and is typically assessed by an observer counting the UTT movement completed. The aims of this study are: (i) to determine whether inertial measurement units (IMUs) provide valid assessment of the UTT-30 by comparing IMU-derived metrics with those from a force-platform (FP), and (ii) to describe how IMUs can be used to provide valid assessment of the movement dynamics/stability when performing a single UTT movement that is held for 5 s (UTT-stand). Twenty adults (26.2 ± 7.7 years) performed a UTT-30 and a UTT-stand on a force-platform with IMUs attached to each foot and the lumbar spine. We evaluate the agreement/association between IMU measures and measures determined from the FP. For UTT-30, IMU analysis of peaks in plantarflexion velocity and in FP’s centre of pressure (CoP) velocity was used to identify each repeated UTT movement and provided an objective means to discount any UTT movements that were not completed ‘fully’. UTT movements that were deemed to have not been completed ‘fully’ were those that yielded peak plantarflexion and CoP velocity values during the period of rising to up-on-the-toes that were below 1 SD of each participant’s mean peak rising velocity across their repeated UTT. The number of UTT movements detected by the IMU approach (23.5) agreed with the number determined by the FP (23.6), and each approach determined the same number of ‘fully’ completed movements (IMU, 19.9; FP, 19.7). For UTT-stand, IMU-derived movement dynamics/postural stability were moderately-to-strongly correlated with measures derived from the FP. Our findings highlight that the use of IMUs can provide valid assessment of UTT test(s). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensor Assessment of Human Movement)
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