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12 pages, 2361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Sensors Based on Miniaturized High-Performance Hybrid Nanogenerator for Medical Health Monitoring

by Jinjing Wu, Xiaobo Lin, Chengkai Yang, Sirui Yang, Chenning Liu and Yuanyuan Cao

Biosensors 2024, 14(8), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14080361 - 25 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2795

Abstract

Wearable sensors are important components, converting mechanical vibration energy into electrical signals or other forms of output, which are widely used in healthcare, disaster warning, and transportation. However, the reliance on batteries limits the portability of wearable sensors and hinders their application in [...] Read more.

Wearable sensors are important components, converting mechanical vibration energy into electrical signals or other forms of output, which are widely used in healthcare, disaster warning, and transportation. However, the reliance on batteries limits the portability of wearable sensors and hinders their application in the field of Internet of Things. To solve this problem, we designed a miniaturized high-performance hybrid nanogenerator (MHP-HNG), which combined the functions of triboelectric sensing and electromagnetic power generation as well as the advantages of miniaturization. By optimizing the design of TENG and EMG, the wearable sensor achieved a voltage output of 14.14 V and a power output of 49 mW. Based on the wireless optical communication and wireless communication technologies, the wearable sensor achieved the integration of sensing, communication, and self-powered function, which is expected to realize health monitoring, emergency warning, and rehabilitation assistance, and further extend the potential application value in the medical field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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13 pages, 4018 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Self-Calibrated Single Wavelength Biosensor for Measuring Oxygen Saturation

by Michal Katan, Ori Pearl, Alon Tzroya, Hamootal Duadi and Dror Fixler

Biosensors 2024, 14(3), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14030132 - 4 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1952

Abstract

Traditional methods for measuring blood oxygen use multiple wavelengths, which produce an intrinsic error due to ratiometric measurements. These methods assume that the absorption changes with the wavelength, but in fact the scattering changes as well and cannot be neglected. We found that [...] Read more.

Traditional methods for measuring blood oxygen use multiple wavelengths, which produce an intrinsic error due to ratiometric measurements. These methods assume that the absorption changes with the wavelength, but in fact the scattering changes as well and cannot be neglected. We found that if one measures in a specific angle around a cylindrical tissue, called the iso-pathlength (IPL) point, the reemitted light intensity is unaffected by the tissue’s scattering. Therefore, the absorption can be isolated from the scattering, which allows the extraction of the subject’s oxygen saturation. In this work, we designed an optical biosensor for reading the light intensity reemitted from the tissue, using a single light source and multiple photodetectors (PDs), with one of them in the IPL point’s location. Using this bio-device, we developed a methodology to extract the arterial oxygen saturation using a single wavelength light source. We proved this method is not dependent on the light source and is applicable to different measurement locations on the body, with an error of 0.5%. Moreover, we tested thirty-eight males and females with the biosensor under normal conditions. Finally, we show the results of measuring subjects in a hypoxic chamber that simulates extreme conditions with low oxygen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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14 pages, 1599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Normalization Techniques for Individual Baseline-Free Estimation of Absolute Hypovolemic Status Using a Porcine Model

by Tamara P. Lambert, Michael Chan, Jesus Antonio Sanchez-Perez, Mohammad Nikbakht, David J. Lin, Afra Nawar, Syed Khairul Bashar, Jacob P. Kimball, Jonathan S. Zia, Asim H. Gazi, Gabriela I. Cestero, Daniella Corporan, Muralidhar Padala, Jin-Oh Hahn and Omer T. Inan

Biosensors 2024, 14(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14020061 - 23 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2120

Abstract

Hypovolemic shock is one of the leading causes of death in the military. The current methods of assessing hypovolemia in field settings rely on a clinician assessment of vital signs, which is an unreliable assessment of hypovolemia severity. These methods often detect hypovolemia [...] Read more.

Hypovolemic shock is one of the leading causes of death in the military. The current methods of assessing hypovolemia in field settings rely on a clinician assessment of vital signs, which is an unreliable assessment of hypovolemia severity. These methods often detect hypovolemia when interventional methods are ineffective. Therefore, there is a need to develop real-time sensing methods for the early detection of hypovolemia. Previously, our group developed a random-forest model that successfully estimated absolute blood-volume status (ABVS) from noninvasive wearable sensor data for a porcine model (n = 6). However, this model required normalizing ABVS data using individual baseline data, which may not be present in crisis situations where a wearable sensor might be placed on a patient by the attending clinician. We address this barrier by examining seven individual baseline-free normalization techniques. Using a feature-specific global mean from the ABVS and an external dataset for normalization demonstrated similar performance metrics compared to no normalization (normalization: R² = 0.82 ± 0.025|0.80 ± 0.032, AUC = 0.86 ± 5.5 × 10⁻³|0.86 ± 0.013, RMSE = 28.30 ± 0.63%|27.68 ± 0.80%; no normalization: R² = 0.81 ± 0.045, AUC = 0.86 ± 8.9 × 10⁻³, RMSE = 28.89 ± 0.84%). This demonstrates that normalization may not be required and develops a foundation for individual baseline-free ABVS prediction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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21 pages, 7108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noncontact Cardiac Activity Detection Based on Single-Channel ISM Band FMCW Radar

by Kui Qu, Lei Wei and Rongfu Zhang

Biosensors 2023, 13(11), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13110982 - 12 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1788

Abstract

The heart is an important organ that maintains human life activities, and its movement reflects its health status. Utilizing electromagnetic waves as a sensing tool, radar sensors enable noncontact measurement of cardiac motion, offering advantages over conventional contact-based methods in terms of comfort, [...] Read more.

The heart is an important organ that maintains human life activities, and its movement reflects its health status. Utilizing electromagnetic waves as a sensing tool, radar sensors enable noncontact measurement of cardiac motion, offering advantages over conventional contact-based methods in terms of comfort, hygiene, and efficiency. In this study, the high-precision displacement detection algorithm of radar is applied to measure cardiac motion. Experimental is conducted using a single out-channel frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar operating in the ISM frequency band with a center frequency of 24 GHz and a bandwidth of 150 MHz. Since the detection signal is influenced by both respiratory and heartbeat movements, it is necessary to eliminate the respiratory signal from the measurement signal. Firstly, the harmonic composition of the respiratory signal is analyzed, and a method is proposed to calculate the parameters of the respiratory waveform by comparing the respiratory waveform coverage area with the area of the circumscribed rectangle. This allows for determining the number of respiratory harmonics, assisting in determining whether respiratory harmonics overlap with the frequency range of the heartbeat signal. Subsequently, a more accurate cardiac motion waveform is extracted. A reference basis is provided for extracting cardiac health information from radar measurement waveforms by analyzing the corresponding relationship between certain extreme points of the waveform and characteristic positions of the electrocardiogram (ECG) signal. This is achieved by eliminating the fundamental frequency component of the heartbeat waveform to emphasize other spectral components present in the heartbeat signal and comparing the heartbeat waveform, the heartbeat waveform with the fundamental frequency removed, and the heartbeat velocity waveform with synchronized ECG signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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11 pages, 2667 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Wearable Triboelectric Nanogenerator with Ground-Coupled Electrode for Biomechanical Energy Harvesting and Sensing

by Kangyu Su, Xiaobo Lin, Zhangwei Liu, Yun Tian, Zhengchun Peng and Bo Meng

Biosensors 2023, 13(5), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13050548 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2224

Abstract

Harvesting biomechanical energy for electricity as well as physiological monitoring is a major development trend for wearable devices. In this article, we report a wearable triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) with a ground-coupled electrode. It has a considerable output performance for harvesting human biomechanical energy [...] Read more.

Harvesting biomechanical energy for electricity as well as physiological monitoring is a major development trend for wearable devices. In this article, we report a wearable triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) with a ground-coupled electrode. It has a considerable output performance for harvesting human biomechanical energy and can also be used as a human motion sensor. The reference electrode of this device achieves a lower potential by coupling with the ground to form a coupling capacitor. Such a design can significantly improve the TENG’s outputs. A maximum output voltage up to 946 V and a short-circuit current of 36.3 μA are achieved. The quantity of the charge that transfers during one step of an adult walking reaches 419.6 nC, while it is only 100.8 nC for the separate single-electrode-structured device. In addition, using the human body as a natural conductor to connect the reference electrode allows the device to drive the shoelaces with integrated LEDs. Finally, the wearable TENG is able to perform motion monitoring and sensing, such as human gait recognition, step count and movement speed calculation. These show great application prospects of the presented TENG device in wearable electronics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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12 pages, 6972 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Highly Stretchable and Robust Electrochemical Sensor Based on 3D Graphene Oxide–CNT Composite for Detecting Ammonium in Sweat

by Yunzhi Hua, Mingxiang Guan, Linzhong Xia, Yu Chen, Junhao Mai, Cong Zhao and Changrui Liao

Biosensors 2023, 13(3), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13030409 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

Wearable electrochemical sensors have attracted tremendous attention and have been experiencing rapid growth in recent years. Sweat, one of the most suitable biological fluids for non-invasive monitoring, contains various chemical elements relating abundant information about human health conditions. In this work, a new [...] Read more.

Wearable electrochemical sensors have attracted tremendous attention and have been experiencing rapid growth in recent years. Sweat, one of the most suitable biological fluids for non-invasive monitoring, contains various chemical elements relating abundant information about human health conditions. In this work, a new type of non-invasive and highly stretchable potentiometric sweat sensor was developed based on all-solid-state ion-selective electrode (ISE) coupled with poly(dimethylsiloxane; PDMS) and polyurethane (PU). This highly stretchable composite of PDMS-PU allows the sensor to be robust, with the PDMS providing a flexible backbone and the PU enhancing the adhesion between the electrodes and the substrate. In addition, graphene–carbon nanotube (CNT) network 3D nanomaterials were introduced to modify the ion selective membrane (ISM) in order to increase the charge transfer activity of the ISEs, which also could minimize the formation of water layers on the electrode surface, as such nanomaterials are highly hydrophobic. As a result, the sensor demonstrated a wide detection range of NH₄⁺ from 10⁻⁶ M to 10⁻¹ M with high stability and sensitivity—showing a high sensitivity of 59.6 ± 1.5 mV/log [NH₄⁺] and an LOD lower than 10⁻⁶ M. Under a strain of 40%, the sensor still showed a sensitivity of 42.7 ± 3.1 mV/log [NH₄⁺]. The proposed highly stretchable and robust electrochemical sweat sensor provides a new choice for wearable-device-based personal daily healthcare management beyond hospital-centric healthcare monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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20 pages, 7023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mental Stress Detection Using a Wearable In-Ear Plethysmography

by Hika Barki and Wan-Young Chung

Biosensors 2023, 13(3), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13030397 - 17 Mar 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4055

Abstract

This study presents an ear-mounted photoplethysmography (PPG) system that is designed to detect mental stress. Mental stress is a prevalent condition that can negatively impact an individual’s health and well-being. Early detection and treatment of mental stress are crucial for preventing related illnesses [...] Read more.

This study presents an ear-mounted photoplethysmography (PPG) system that is designed to detect mental stress. Mental stress is a prevalent condition that can negatively impact an individual’s health and well-being. Early detection and treatment of mental stress are crucial for preventing related illnesses and maintaining overall wellness. The study used data from 14 participants that were collected in a controlled environment. The participants were subjected to stress-inducing tasks such as the Stroop color–word test and mathematical calculations. The raw PPG signal was then preprocessed and transformed into scalograms using continuous wavelet transform (CWT). A convolutional neural network classifier was then used to classify the transformed signals as stressed or non-stressed. The results of the study show that the PPG system achieved high levels of accuracy (92.04%) and F1-score (90.8%). Furthermore, by adding white Gaussian noise to the raw PPG signals, the results were improved even more, with an accuracy of 96.02% and an F1-score of 95.24%. The proposed ear-mounted device shows great promise as a reliable tool for the early detection and treatment of mental stress, potentially revolutionizing the field of mental health and well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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Review

Jump to: Research

21 pages, 696 KiB

Open AccessReview

Extended Review Concerning the Integration of Electrochemical Biosensors into Modern IoT and Wearable Devices

by Razvan Bocu

Biosensors 2024, 14(5), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14050214 - 25 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4323

Abstract

Electrochemical biosensors include a recognition component and an electronic transducer, which detect the body fluids with a high degree of accuracy. More importantly, they generate timely readings of the related physiological parameters, and they are suitable for integration into portable, wearable and implantable [...] Read more.

Electrochemical biosensors include a recognition component and an electronic transducer, which detect the body fluids with a high degree of accuracy. More importantly, they generate timely readings of the related physiological parameters, and they are suitable for integration into portable, wearable and implantable devices that are significant relative to point-of-care diagnostics scenarios. As an example, the personal glucose meter fundamentally improves the management of diabetes in the comfort of the patients’ homes. This review paper analyzes the principles of electrochemical biosensing and the structural features of electrochemical biosensors relative to the implementation of health monitoring and disease diagnostics strategies. The analysis particularly considers the integration of the biosensors into wearable, portable, and implantable systems. The fundamental aim of this paper is to present and critically evaluate the identified significant developments in the scope of electrochemical biosensing for preventive and customized point-of-care diagnostic devices. The paper also approaches the most important engineering challenges that should be addressed in order to improve the sensing accuracy, and enable multiplexing and one-step processes, which mediate the integration of electrochemical biosensing devices into digital healthcare scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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30 pages, 9926 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Nanowire-Based Wearable Physical Sensors

by Junlin Gu, Yunfei Shen, Shijia Tian, Zhaoguo Xue and Xianhong Meng

Biosensors 2023, 13(12), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13121025 - 11 Dec 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3103

Abstract

Wearable electronics is a technology that closely integrates electronic devices with the human body or clothing, which can realize human–computer interaction, health monitoring, smart medical, and other functions. Wearable physical sensors are an important part of wearable electronics. They can sense various physical [...] Read more.

Wearable electronics is a technology that closely integrates electronic devices with the human body or clothing, which can realize human–computer interaction, health monitoring, smart medical, and other functions. Wearable physical sensors are an important part of wearable electronics. They can sense various physical signals from the human body or the surrounding environment and convert them into electrical signals for processing and analysis. Nanowires (NW) have unique properties such as a high surface-to-volume ratio, high flexibility, high carrier mobility, a tunable bandgap, a large piezoresistive coefficient, and a strong light–matter interaction. They are one of the ideal candidates for the fabrication of wearable physical sensors with high sensitivity, fast response, and low power consumption. In this review, we summarize recent advances in various types of NW-based wearable physical sensors, specifically including mechanical, photoelectric, temperature, and multifunctional sensors. The discussion revolves around the structural design, sensing mechanisms, manufacture, and practical applications of these sensors, highlighting the positive role that NWs play in the sensing process. Finally, we present the conclusions with perspectives on current challenges and future opportunities in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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18 pages, 2954 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress in MXene Hydrogel for Wearable Electronics

by Yi Ren, Qi He, Tongyi Xu, Weiguan Zhang, Zhengchun Peng and Bo Meng

Biosensors 2023, 13(5), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13050495 - 22 Apr 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4062

Abstract

Recently, hydrogels have attracted great attention because of their unique properties, including stretchability, self-adhesion, transparency, and biocompatibility. They can transmit electrical signals for potential applications in flexible electronics, human–machine interfaces, sensors, actuators, et al. MXene, a newly emerged two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterial, is an [...] Read more.

Recently, hydrogels have attracted great attention because of their unique properties, including stretchability, self-adhesion, transparency, and biocompatibility. They can transmit electrical signals for potential applications in flexible electronics, human–machine interfaces, sensors, actuators, et al. MXene, a newly emerged two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterial, is an ideal candidate for wearable sensors, benefitting from its surface’s negatively charged hydrophilic nature, biocompatibility, high specific surface area, facile functionalization, and high metallic conductivity. However, stability has been a limiting factor for MXene-based applications, and fabricating MXene into hydrogels has been proven to significantly improve their stability. The unique and complex gel structure and gelation mechanism of MXene hydrogels require intensive research and engineering at nanoscale. Although the application of MXene-based composites in sensors has been widely studied, the preparation methods and applications of MXene-based hydrogels in wearable electronics is relatively rare. Thus, in order to facilitate the effective evolution of MXene hydrogel sensors, the design strategies, preparation methods, and applications of MXene hydrogels for flexible and wearable electronics are comprehensively discussed and summarized in this work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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23 pages, 3256 KiB

Open AccessReview

Smart Mask as Wearable for Post-Pandemic Personal Healthcare

by Jingcheng Li, Jing Yin, Seeram Ramakrishna and Dongxiao Ji

Biosensors 2023, 13(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13020205 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5047

Abstract

A mask serves as a simple external barrier that protects humans from infectious particles from poor air conditions in the surrounding environment. As an important personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect our respiratory system, masks are able not only to filter pathogens and [...] Read more.

A mask serves as a simple external barrier that protects humans from infectious particles from poor air conditions in the surrounding environment. As an important personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect our respiratory system, masks are able not only to filter pathogens and dust particles but also to sense, reflect or even respond to environmental conditions. This smartness is of particular interest among academia and industries due to its potential in disease detection, health monitoring and caring aspects. In this review, we provide an overlook of the current air filtration strategies used in masks, from structural designs to integrated functional modules that empower the mask’s ability to sense and transfer physiological or environmental information to become smart. Specifically, we discussed recent developments in masks designed to detect macroscopic physiological signals from the wearer and mask-based disease diagnoses, such as COVID-19. Further, we propose the concept of next-generation smart masks and the requirements from material selection and function design perspectives that enable masks to interact and play crucial roles in health-caring wearables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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23 pages, 11448 KiB

Open AccessReview

Novel Wearable Optical Sensors for Vital Health Monitoring Systems—A Review

by Baljinder Kaur, Santosh Kumar and Brajesh Kumar Kaushik

Biosensors 2023, 13(2), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13020181 - 23 Jan 2023

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 9938

Abstract

Wearable sensors are pioneering devices to monitor health issues that allow the constant monitoring of physical and biological parameters. The immunity towards electromagnetic interference, miniaturization, detection of nano-volumes, integration with fiber, high sensitivity, low cost, usable in harsh environments and corrosion-resistant have made [...] Read more.

Wearable sensors are pioneering devices to monitor health issues that allow the constant monitoring of physical and biological parameters. The immunity towards electromagnetic interference, miniaturization, detection of nano-volumes, integration with fiber, high sensitivity, low cost, usable in harsh environments and corrosion-resistant have made optical wearable sensor an emerging sensing technology in the recent year. This review presents the progress made in the development of novel wearable optical sensors for vital health monitoring systems. The details of different substrates, sensing platforms, and biofluids used for the detection of target molecules are discussed in detail. Wearable technologies could increase the quality of health monitoring systems at a nominal cost and enable continuous and early disease diagnosis. Various optical sensing principles, including surface-enhanced Raman scattering, colorimetric, fluorescence, plasmonic, photoplethysmography, and interferometric-based sensors, are discussed in detail for health monitoring applications. The performance of optical wearable sensors utilizing two-dimensional materials is also discussed. Future challenges associated with the development of optical wearable sensors for point-of-care applications and clinical diagnosis have been thoroughly discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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44 pages, 9519 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Materials, Wearables, and Diagnostic Advancements in Therapeutic Treatment of Brain Diseases

by Brindha Ramasubramanian, Vundrala Sumedha Reddy, Vijila Chellappan and Seeram Ramakrishna

Biosensors 2022, 12(12), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121176 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5335

Abstract

Among the most critical health issues, brain illnesses, such as neurodegenerative conditions and tumors, lower quality of life and have a significant economic impact. Implantable technology and nano-drug carriers have enormous promise for cerebral brain activity sensing and regulated therapeutic application in the [...] Read more.

Among the most critical health issues, brain illnesses, such as neurodegenerative conditions and tumors, lower quality of life and have a significant economic impact. Implantable technology and nano-drug carriers have enormous promise for cerebral brain activity sensing and regulated therapeutic application in the treatment and detection of brain illnesses. Flexible materials are chosen for implantable devices because they help reduce biomechanical mismatch between the implanted device and brain tissue. Additionally, implanted biodegradable devices might lessen any autoimmune negative effects. The onerous subsequent operation for removing the implanted device is further lessened with biodegradability. This review expands on current developments in diagnostic technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, mass spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, angiography, and electroencephalogram while providing an overview of prevalent brain diseases. As far as we are aware, there hasn’t been a single review article that addresses all the prevalent brain illnesses. The reviewer also looks into the prospects for the future and offers suggestions for the direction of future developments in the treatment of brain diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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18 pages, 1327 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wearable Sensor-Based Monitoring of Environmental Exposures and the Associated Health Effects: A Review

by Xueer Lin, Jiaying Luo, Minyan Liao, Yalan Su, Mo Lv, Qing Li, Shenglan Xiao and Jianbang Xiang

Biosensors 2022, 12(12), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121131 - 6 Dec 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3790

Abstract

Recent advances in sensor technology have facilitated the development and use of personalized sensors in monitoring environmental factors and the associated health effects. No studies have reviewed the research advancement in examining population-based health responses to environmental exposure via portable sensors/instruments. This study [...] Read more.

Recent advances in sensor technology have facilitated the development and use of personalized sensors in monitoring environmental factors and the associated health effects. No studies have reviewed the research advancement in examining population-based health responses to environmental exposure via portable sensors/instruments. This study aims to review studies that use portable sensors to measure environmental factors and health responses while exploring the environmental effects on health. With a thorough literature review using two major English databases (Web of Science and PubMed), 24 eligible studies were included and analyzed out of 16,751 total records. The 24 studies include 5 on physical factors, 19 on chemical factors, and none on biological factors. The results show that particles were the most considered environmental factor among all of the physical, chemical, and biological factors, followed by total volatile organic compounds and carbon monoxide. Heart rate and heart rate variability were the most considered health indicators among all cardiopulmonary outcomes, followed by respiratory function. The studies mostly had a sample size of fewer than 100 participants and a study period of less than a week due to the challenges in accessing low-cost, small, and light wearable sensors. This review guides future sensor-based environmental health studies on project design and sensor selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Biosensors for Healthcare Monitoring)

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