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11 pages, 4689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Availability of Central α4β2* Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Human Obesity

by Eva Schweickert de Palma, Tilman Günnewig, Michael Rullmann, Julia Luthardt, Mohammed K. Hankir, Philipp M. Meyer, Georg-Alexander Becker, Marianne Patt, Sarah Martin, Anja Hilbert, Matthias Blüher, Osama Sabri and Swen Hesse

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(12), 1648; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12121648 - 1 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1679

Abstract

Purpose: Obesity is thought to arise, in part, from deficits in the inhibitory control over appetitive behavior. Such motivational processes are regulated by neuromodulators, specifically acetylcholine (ACh), via α4β2* nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChR). These nAChR are highly enriched in the thalamus and contribute [...] Read more.

Purpose: Obesity is thought to arise, in part, from deficits in the inhibitory control over appetitive behavior. Such motivational processes are regulated by neuromodulators, specifically acetylcholine (ACh), via α4β2* nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChR). These nAChR are highly enriched in the thalamus and contribute to the thalamic gating of cortico-striatal signaling, but also act on the mesoaccumbal reward system. The changes in α4β2* nAChR availability, however, have not been demonstrated in human obesity thus far. The aim of our study was, thus, to investigate whether there is altered brain α4β2* nAChR availability in individuals with obesity compared to normal-weight healthy controls. Methods: We studied 15 non-smoking individuals with obesity (body mass index, BMI: 37.8 ± 3.1 kg/m²; age: 39 ± 14 years, 9 females) and 16 normal-weight controls (non-smokers, BMI: 21.9 ± 1.7 kg/m²; age: 28 ± 7 years, 13 females) by using PET and the α4β2* nAChR selective (−)-[¹⁸F]flubatine, which was applied within a bolus-infusion protocol (294 ± 16 MBq). Volume-of-interest (VOI) analysis was performed in order to calculate the regional total distribution volume (V_T). Results: No overall significant difference in V_T between the individuals with obesity and the normal-weight volunteers was found, while the V_T in the nucleus basalis of Meynert tended to be lower in the individuals with obesity (10.1 ± 2.1 versus 11.9 ± 2.2; p = 0.10), and the V_T in the thalamus showed a tendency towards higher values in the individuals with obesity (26.5 ± 2.5 versus 25.9 ± 4.2; p = 0.09). Conclusion: While these first data do not show greater brain α4β2* nAChR availability in human obesity overall, the findings of potentially aberrant α4β2* nAChR availability in the key brain regions that regulate feeding behavior merit further exploration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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17 pages, 2703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Central Serotonin/Noradrenaline Transporter Availability and Treatment Success in Patients with Obesity

by Nora-Isabell Griebsch, Johanna Kern, Jonas Hansen, Michael Rullmann, Julia Luthardt, Stephanie Helfmeyer, Franziska J. Dekorsy, Marvin Soeder, Mohammed K. Hankir, Franziska Zientek, Georg-Alexander Becker, Marianne Patt, Philipp M. Meyer, Arne Dietrich, Matthias Blüher, Yu-Shin Ding, Anja Hilbert, Osama Sabri and Swen Hesse

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(11), 1437; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12111437 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1897

Abstract

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) as well as noradrenaline (NA) are key modulators of various fundamental brain functions including the control of appetite. While manipulations that alter brain serotoninergic signaling clearly affect body weight, studies implicating 5-HT transporters and NA transporters (5-HTT and NAT, respectively) [...] Read more.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) as well as noradrenaline (NA) are key modulators of various fundamental brain functions including the control of appetite. While manipulations that alter brain serotoninergic signaling clearly affect body weight, studies implicating 5-HT transporters and NA transporters (5-HTT and NAT, respectively) as a main drug treatment target for human obesity have not been conclusive. The aim of this positron emission tomography (PET) study was to investigate how these central transporters are associated with changes of body weight after 6 months of dietary intervention or Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery in order to assess whether 5-HTT as well as NAT availability can predict weight loss and consequently treatment success. The study population consisted of two study cohorts using either the 5-HTT-selective radiotracer [¹¹C]DASB to measure 5-HTT availability or the NAT-selective radiotracer [¹¹C]MRB to assess NAT availability. Each group included non-obesity healthy participants, patients with severe obesity (body mass index, BMI, >35 kg/m²) following a conservative dietary program (diet) and patients undergoing RYGB surgery within a 6-month follow-up. Overall, changes in BMI were not associated with changes of both 5-HTT and NAT availability, while 5-HTT availability in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) prior to intervention was associated with substantial BMI reduction after RYGB surgery and inversely related with modest BMI reduction after diet. Taken together, the data of our study indicate that 5-HTT and NAT are involved in the pathomechanism of obesity and have the potential to serve as predictors of treatment outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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18 pages, 1339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

HPA Axis Responsiveness Associates with Central Serotonin Transporter Availability in Human Obesity and Non-Obesity Controls

by Christian Schinke, Michael Rullmann, Julia Luthardt, Mandy Drabe, Elisa Preller, Georg A. Becker, Marianne Patt, Ralf Regenthal, Franziska Zientek, Osama Sabri, Florian Then Bergh and Swen Hesse

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(11), 1430; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12111430 - 25 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2233

Abstract

Background: Alterations of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity and serotonergic signaling are implicated in the pathogenesis of human obesity and may contribute to its metabolic and mental complications. The association of these systems has not been investigated in human obesity. Objective: To investigate the [...] Read more.

Background: Alterations of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity and serotonergic signaling are implicated in the pathogenesis of human obesity and may contribute to its metabolic and mental complications. The association of these systems has not been investigated in human obesity. Objective: To investigate the relation of HPA responsiveness and serotonin transporter (5-HTT) availability in otherwise healthy individuals with obesity class II or III (OB) compared to non-obesity controls (NO). Study participants: Twenty-eight OB (21 females; age 36.6 ± 10.6 years; body mass index (BMI) 41.2 ± 5.1 kg/m²) were compared to 12 healthy NO (8 females; age 35.8 ± 7.4 years; BMI 22.4 ± 2.3 kg/m²), matched for age and sex. Methods: HPA axis responsiveness was investigated using the combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone (dex/CRH) test, and curve indicators were derived for cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The 5-HTT selective tracer [¹¹C]DASB was applied, and parametric images of the binding potentials (BP_ND) were calculated using the multilinear reference tissue model and evaluated by atlas-based volume of interest (VOI) analysis. The self-questionnaires of behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system (BIS/BAS) with subscales drive, fun-seeking and reward were assessed. Results: OB showed significant positive correlations of ACTH curve parameters with overall 5-HTT BP_ND (ACTH_AUC: r = 0.39, p = 0.04) and 5-HTT BP_ND of the caudate nucleus (ACTH_AUC: r = 0.54, p = 0.003). In NO, cortisol indicators correlated significantly with BP_ND in the hippocampus (cortisol_AUC: r = 0.59, p = 0.04). In OB, BAS reward was inversely associated with the ACTH_AUC (r = −0.49, p = 0.009). Conclusion: The present study supports a serotonergic-neuroendocrine association, which regionally differs between OB and NO. In OB, areas processing emotion and reward seem to be in-volved. The finding of a serotonergic HPA correlation may have implications for other diseases with dysregulated stress axis responsiveness, and for potential pharmacologic interven-tions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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12 pages, 1791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Alcohol Types, Coffee, and Tea Intake with Risk of Dementia: Prospective Cohort Study of UK Biobank Participants

by Sylva Mareike Schaefer, Anna Kaiser, Inken Behrendt, Gerrit Eichner and Mathias Fasshauer

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12030360 - 8 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4748

Abstract

The prevalence of dementia is increasing globally and is linked to obesity and unfavorable dietary habits. The present study analyses the association of alcohol intake from wine and non-wine alcoholic beverages (non-wine) in g/d, as well as coffee and tea in cups/d, with [...] Read more.

The prevalence of dementia is increasing globally and is linked to obesity and unfavorable dietary habits. The present study analyses the association of alcohol intake from wine and non-wine alcoholic beverages (non-wine) in g/d, as well as coffee and tea in cups/d, with incident dementia. Over 4.2 million person-years, 4270 dementia cases occurred in 351,436 UK Biobank participants. Hazard ratios (HRs) for incident dementia were defined with Cox proportional hazard regression models in which beverage intake was fitted as penalized cubic splines. Wine intake showed a significant U-shaped association with the lowest risk for incident dementia (nadir) ranging from 21 to 23 g alcohol/d in all participants and in males. In contrast, non-wine consumption was significantly and dose-dependently associated with incident dementia, and the nadir was found at 0 g alcohol/d. Coffee consumption was not related to dementia risk, while moderate-to-high tea intake was negatively associated with incident dementia. Taken together, the current study shows on a population level that moderate consumption of wine and moderate-to-high tea intake is associated with a decreased risk of incident dementia. In contrast, non-wine is positively related to dementia risk in a linear fashion, and no clear association is found for coffee. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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8 pages, 259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One-Year Prospective Association of BMI with Later Cognitive Development in Preschoolers

by Carina Hansen, Latasha Smith, Brian A. Lynch, Antonela Miccoli, Magdalena Romanowicz and Loren Toussaint

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(3), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12030320 - 27 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2614

Abstract

This study examined the prospective relationships between preschoolers’ body mass index (BMI) and cognitive development. BMI, cognitive (i.e., Brigance), sex, and age data were collected from seven cohorts of children attending Head Start from 2012 to 2018. Children (N = 324) with [...] Read more.

This study examined the prospective relationships between preschoolers’ body mass index (BMI) and cognitive development. BMI, cognitive (i.e., Brigance), sex, and age data were collected from seven cohorts of children attending Head Start from 2012 to 2018. Children (N = 324) with two years of complete data were included. After controlling for the first year cognitive development scores, age, gender, and the cohort, the BMI was predictive of lower cognitive development scores in year two (B = −0.06, β = −0.14, t = −3.19, p = 0.002). Female sex (B = 2.69, β = 0.10, t = 2.30, p = 0.022) and older age (B = 0.02, β = 0.15, t = 3.20, p ≤ 0.001) were also shown to be statistically significant predictors of improved year two cognitive scores. The initial BMI scores were associated with poorer one year cognitive development scores in this sample of preschool children. Excessive body mass may contribute to numerous biological, psychological, and social factors that inhibit children with obesity from reaching their full cognitive potential, during a time in which brain development and cognitive skills development are at critical points of growth. Early childhood obesity interventions may have positive consequences for cognitive development, but additional prospective studies are needed to confirm these results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

8 pages, 232 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Verbal Fluency in Metabolic Syndrome

by Marcin Gierach, Anna Rasmus and Edyta Orłowska

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12020255 - 12 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2158

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) or otherwise insulin resistance (IR) is described as a cluster of several commonly occurring disorders, including abdominal obesity; lipids disorders, such as hypertriglyceridemia; and low levels of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), hypertension (≥130/85 mmHg), and carbohydrates disorders, such as impaired fasting [...] Read more.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) or otherwise insulin resistance (IR) is described as a cluster of several commonly occurring disorders, including abdominal obesity; lipids disorders, such as hypertriglyceridemia; and low levels of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), hypertension (≥130/85 mmHg), and carbohydrates disorders, such as impaired fasting glucose or diabetes mellitus type 2. Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) constitutes insulin resistance, which is a strong risk factor for strokes. Patients with MetS are often prone to cognitive decline. Metabolic risk factors, hypertension, and diabetes, amongst them, have been hypothesized to play a great role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the development of vascular dementia. For neuropsychological diagnostic and theoretical purposes verbal fluency is defined as a cognitive function that facilitates information retrieval from memory. It engages executive control and other cognitive processes, such as selective attention, selective inhibition, mental set shifting, internal response generation, and self-monitoring, as well as imagination and psychomotor skills. A total of 90 subjects, divided into 2 groups, patients with MetS (45) and healthy controls (45), were assessed. A significant difference in performance was found between the patients and controls, both in the phonetic (p < 0.01) and semantic fluency trials (p < 0.001). The MetS patients produced less words in the letter K and animal categories. The analysis of descriptive statistics shows that the group of patients with metabolic syndrome generated fewer words in both the phonetic and semantic categories. Our study shows that there is an association between metabolic factors and the verbal fluency performance of MetS patients. This is true, especially for phonetic verbal fluency, which is traditionally connected with the frontal cortex. Lower switching signifies possible executive dysfunctions amongst people with MetS. Subjects with this condition generated more diverse words and created less standard associations. This further implies the existence of dysexecutive syndrome and the need for diagnosing patients in this direction and involving this group of people in therapy. The proper correction of MetS components may improve cognitive function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

17 pages, 342 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Executive Functions of Adults with Binge-Eating Disorder: The Role of Weight Status and Psychopathology

by Nele Busch, Ricarda Schmidt and Anja Hilbert

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12010006 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3128

Abstract

Findings on executive functions (EFs) in binge-eating disorder (BED) are inconsistent and possibly biased by associated comorbidities. This study aimed to identify whether distinct levels of physical and mental comorbidity are related to EFs in BED. General and food-specific EFs in n = [...] Read more.

Findings on executive functions (EFs) in binge-eating disorder (BED) are inconsistent and possibly biased by associated comorbidities. This study aimed to identify whether distinct levels of physical and mental comorbidity are related to EFs in BED. General and food-specific EFs in n = 77 adults with BED were compared to population-based norms and associations with weight status, depressive symptoms, and eating disorder psychopathology were analyzed. To detect within-sample patterns of EF performance, k-means clustering was applied. The results indicated that participants’ general EFs were within the average range with slight deficits in alertness. While depression and eating disorder psychopathology were unrelated to EFs, weight status was associated with food-specific attentional bias that was significantly higher in obesity class 2 than in overweight/obesity class 1 and obesity class 3. Four meaningful clusters with distinct strengths and impairments in general and food-specific EFs but without differences in clinical variables were identified. Altogether, adults with BED showed few specific deficits compared to normative data. Performance was unrelated to depression and eating disorder psychopathology, while weight status was associated with food-specific EFs only. The results highlight the need for longitudinal studies to evaluate the relevance of EFs in BED development and maintenance in neurologically healthy adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

9 pages, 3729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Brain Imaging of the GLP-1 Receptor in Obesity Using ⁶⁸Ga-NODAGA-Exendin-4 PET

by Laura N. Deden, Jan Booij, Joanes Grandjean, Judith R. Homberg, Eric J. Hazebroek, Martin Gotthardt and Marti Boss

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(12), 1647; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11121647 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3643

Abstract

Stimulation of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors increases the insulin release in the pancreas during high glucose levels, and also stimulates a feeling of satiety. Likewise, synthetic GLP-1 receptor agonists derived from exendin are used successfully in the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus and [...] Read more.

Stimulation of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors increases the insulin release in the pancreas during high glucose levels, and also stimulates a feeling of satiety. Likewise, synthetic GLP-1 receptor agonists derived from exendin are used successfully in the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Interestingly, preclinical and clinical studies further suggest that GLP-1 receptor agonists may decrease motor, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms in (animal models) Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease and may slow down neurodegeneration. These observations suggest stimulation of GLP-1 receptors in the brain. The GLP-1 positron emission tomography (PET) tracer ⁶⁸Ga-NODAGA-exendin-4 has been developed and successfully used for imaging in humans. In an ongoing study on the effects of bariatric surgery on GLP-1 receptor expression, we performed ⁶⁸Ga-NODAGA-exendin-4 PET in obese subjects. Here we evaluated whether GLP-1 receptor binding could be visualized in the central nervous system in 10 obese subjects (seven woman; body mass index: mean ± SD: 39 ± 4.4 kg/m²) before bariatric surgery. Although we observed clear uptake in the pituitary area (mean SUV_max 4.3 ± 2.3), we found no significant uptake in other parts of the brain. We conclude that ⁶⁸Ga-NODAGA-exendin-4 PET cannot be used to analyze GLP-1 receptors in the brain of obese subjects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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11 pages, 976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Striatal Dopamine Transporter Availability Is Not Associated with Food Craving in Lean and Obese Humans; a Molecular Imaging Study

by Jamie van Son, Katy A. van Galen, Anne Marijn Bruijn, Karin E. Koopman, Ruth I. Versteeg, Susanne E. la Fleur, Mireille J. Serlie and Jan Booij

Brain Sci. 2021, 11(11), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111428 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2467

Abstract

Brain dopamine signaling is essential for the motivation to eat, and obesity is associated with altered dopaminergic signaling and increased food craving. We used molecular neuroimaging to explore whether striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) availability is associated with craving as measured with the General [...] Read more.

Brain dopamine signaling is essential for the motivation to eat, and obesity is associated with altered dopaminergic signaling and increased food craving. We used molecular neuroimaging to explore whether striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) availability is associated with craving as measured with the General Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait (G-FCQ-T). We here show that humans with obesity (n = 34) experienced significantly more craving for food compared with lean subjects (n = 32), but food craving did not correlate significantly with striatal DAT availability as assessed with ¹²³I-FP-CIT single-photon emission computed tomography. We conclude that food craving is increased in obesity, but the scores for food craving are not related to changes in striatal DAT availability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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Review

Jump to: Research

20 pages, 1633 KiB

Open AccessReview

Brain-to-BAT - and Back?: Crosstalk between the Central Nervous System and Thermogenic Adipose Tissue in Development and Therapy of Obesity

by Andreas Till, Charlotte Fries and Wiebke K. Fenske

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(12), 1646; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12121646 - 1 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4790

Abstract

The body of mammals harbors two distinct types of adipose tissue: while cells within the white adipose tissue (WAT) store surplus energy as lipids, brown adipose tissue (BAT) is nowadays recognized as the main tissue for transforming chemical energy into heat. This process, [...] Read more.

The body of mammals harbors two distinct types of adipose tissue: while cells within the white adipose tissue (WAT) store surplus energy as lipids, brown adipose tissue (BAT) is nowadays recognized as the main tissue for transforming chemical energy into heat. This process, referred to as ‘non-shivering thermogenesis’, is facilitated by the uncoupling of the electron transport across mitochondrial membranes from ATP production. BAT-dependent thermogenesis acts as a safeguarding mechanism under reduced ambient temperature but also plays a critical role in metabolic and energy homeostasis in health and disease. In this review, we summarize the evolutionary structure, function and regulation of the BAT organ under neuronal and hormonal control and discuss its mutual interaction with the central nervous system. We conclude by conceptualizing how better understanding the multifaceted communicative links between the brain and BAT opens avenues for novel therapeutic approaches to treat obesity and related metabolic disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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20 pages, 1230 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Imaging of Central Dopamine in Obesity: A Qualitative Review across Substrates and Radiotracers

by Lieneke Katharina Janssen and Annette Horstmann

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(4), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040486 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4639

Abstract

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in adaptive behavior. A wealth of studies suggests obesity-related alterations in the central dopamine system. The most direct evidence for such differences in humans comes from molecular neuroimaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET) [...] Read more.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in adaptive behavior. A wealth of studies suggests obesity-related alterations in the central dopamine system. The most direct evidence for such differences in humans comes from molecular neuroimaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The aim of the current review is to give a comprehensive overview of molecular neuroimaging studies that investigated the relation between BMI or weight status and any dopamine target in the striatal and midbrain regions of the human brain. A structured literature search was performed and a summary of the extracted findings are presented for each of the four available domains: (1) D2/D3 receptors, (2) dopamine release, (3) dopamine synthesis, and (4) dopamine transporters. Recent proposals of a nonlinear relationship between severity of obesity and dopamine imbalances are described while integrating findings within and across domains, after which limitations of the review are discussed. We conclude that despite many observed associations between obesity and substrates of the dopamine system in humans, it is unlikely that obesity can be traced back to a single dopaminergic cause or consequence. For effective personalized prevention and treatment of obesity, it will be crucial to identify possible dopamine (and non-dopamine) profiles and their functional characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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26 pages, 3271 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Integrative Hedonic and Homeostatic Food Intake Regulation by the Central Nervous System: Insights from Neuroimaging

by Alejandro Campos, John D. Port and Andres Acosta

Brain Sci. 2022, 12(4), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040431 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 14529

Abstract

Food intake regulation in humans is a complex process controlled by the dynamic interaction of homeostatic and hedonic systems. Homeostatic regulation is controlled by appetitive signals from the gut, adipose tissue, and the vagus nerve, while conscious and unconscious reward processes orchestrate hedonic [...] Read more.

Food intake regulation in humans is a complex process controlled by the dynamic interaction of homeostatic and hedonic systems. Homeostatic regulation is controlled by appetitive signals from the gut, adipose tissue, and the vagus nerve, while conscious and unconscious reward processes orchestrate hedonic regulation. On the one hand, sight, smell, taste, and texture perception deliver potent food-related feedback to the central nervous system (CNS) and influence brain areas related to food reward. On the other hand, macronutrient composition stimulates the release of appetite signals from the gut, which are translated in the CNS into unconscious reward processes. This multi-level regulation process of food intake shapes and regulates human ingestive behavior. Identifying the interface between hormones, neurotransmitters, and brain areas is critical to advance our understanding of conditions like obesity and develop better therapeutical interventions. Neuroimaging studies allow us to take a glance into the central nervous system (CNS) while these processes take place. This review focuses on the available neuroimaging evidence to describe this interaction between the homeostatic and hedonic components in human food intake regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Brain and Obesity)

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