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Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates

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A special issue of Crystals (ISSN 2073-4352). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineralogical Crystallography and Biomineralization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 March 2022) | Viewed by 43047

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Dr. Hamed Khodadadi Tirkolaei

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Guest Editor

Center for Bio-mediated and Bio-inspired Geotechnics (CBBG), Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Interests: biocementation; sustainable geotechnics; biogeotechnics

Prof. Satoru Kawasaki

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Guest Editor

Division of Sustainable Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Interests: bio-mediated and bio-inspired geotechnics; geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering learned from nature; beachrock formation mechanism

Prof. Liang Cheng

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School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
Interests: bio-inspired geotechnical engineering; biocementation; biomineralization; biological process; bioremediation; biological wastewater treatment

Prof. Leon van Paassen

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Center for Bio-mediated and Bio-inspired Geotechnics (CBBG), Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Interests: soil chemistry and physics; engineering geology; biogeotechnics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microbially and enzymatically induced carbonate precipitation (MICP and EICP) are biomineralization processes that occur in natural environments and in engineered systems through several mechanisms, including urea hydrolysis and the oxidation of organic matter either under aerobic conditions or through denitrification, iron reduction, and sulfate reduction. MICP and EICP have found applications in the alteration of porous media, such as the remediation (fixation) of metal-contaminated soils, improving the mechanical properties of soils, the reduction of the porosity and/or permeability of granular materials, the protection and repair of concrete and cement structures, and the conservation of building stone and statuary. Despite extensive studies on the application of MICP and EICP in porous media, limited attention has been paid to the mineralogy of the precipitates and its effect on the level of alteration. The mineralogy of the precipitates in porous media can be affected by several factors including temperature, pore fluid chemistry, reaction rates, the mineralogy of the porous materials, and MICP and EICP solution ingredients.

Researchers are invited to contribute to the Special Issue on the “Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates”, which is intended to serve as a unique multidisciplinary forum covering mineralogical aspects of MICP and EICP in porous media.

Dr. Hamed Khodadadi Tirkolaei
Prof. Satoru Kawasaki
Prof. Liang Cheng
Prof. Leon van Paassen
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Microbially induced carbonate precipitation
Enzymatically induced carbonate precipitation
Carbonate crystals
Biomineralization
Porous media

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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16 pages, 3517 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nanomechanical Characterization of Enzyme Induced Carbonate Precipitates

by Vinay Krishnan, Hamed Khodadadi Tirkolaei, Maryam Kazembeyki, Leon A. van Paassen, Christian G. Hoover, Jong Seto and Edward Kavazanjian, Jr.

Crystals 2022, 12(7), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12070995 - 17 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3404

Abstract

The mechanical properties of calcium carbonate minerals formed by enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) were studied using nanoindentation. Two types of precipitates were considered: (i) a “baseline” precipitate, synthesized via urea hydrolysis in an aqueous solution of urease enzyme, urea, and calcium chloride; and (ii) a “modified” precipitate, synthesized from a similar solution, but with the inclusion of nonfat dry milk. While both precipitates predominantly comprised calcite, X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy indicated broader peaks in the modified precipitate, implying differences in the crystal structure of the two precipitates. Both precipitates were polycrystalline and had a higher average indentation hardness (H) and a lower indentation modulus (M) compared with the values for single calcite crystals reported in the literature. The ductility of the precipitates was quantified by the ratio M/H. The modified precipitate had a higher average M/H, implying greater ductility. The increased ductility of the modified precipitate results in higher resistance to crack propagation. In sands biocemented using the modified EICP solution, the increased ductility of the precipitate, in addition to preferential precipitation at interparticle contacts, may contribute to relatively high unconfined compressive strengths at low carbonate contents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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13 pages, 6075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Mediated Method for Immobilizing Copper Tailings Sand Contaminated with Multiple Heavy Metals

by Bo Kang, Fusheng Zha, Hongchang Li, Long Xu, Xianguo Sun and Zhitang Lu

Crystals 2022, 12(4), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12040522 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2032

Abstract

Microbial induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a natural bio-mediated process that has been investigated for soil stabilization and heavy metal immobilization in soil and groundwater. This study analyzed the effect and mechanism of MICP for the solidification/stabilization of tailings sand with multi-heavy metals. When the concentration of cementation solution (CS) is 1.0 mol/L and the optical density(OD₆₀₀) is 1.6, the unconfined compressive strength of tailings sand treated by MICP is the largest, and the solidification efficiency of heavy metals in tailings sand is also the highest. The macroscopic and microscopic observations reveal that the mechanism of MICP solidification of tailings is bacterial outer oxide, hydroxide, alkaline carbonate, and carbonate precipitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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15 pages, 23432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties and Disintegration Resistance of Microbially Solidified Granite Residual Soil

by Shihua Liang, Xueli Xiao, Caixing Fang, Deluan Feng and Yuxin Wang

Crystals 2022, 12(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12020132 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2384

Abstract

Microbially induced calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) precipitation (MICP) is an emerging soil-treatment method. To explore the effect of this technology on granite residual soil, this study investigated the effects of the mechanical properties and disintegration resistance of microbially cured granite residual soil under different moisture contents by conducting direct shear and disintegration tests. The curing mechanism was also discussed and analyzed. Results showed that MICP can be used as reinforcement for granite residual soil. Compared with those of untreated granite residual soil, the internal friction angle of MICP-treated granite residual soil increased by 10% under a moisture content of 30%, while its cohesion increased by 218%. The disintegration rate of the MICP-treated granite residual soil stabilized after a maintenance time of 5 days under different water contents. Therefore, we provide the explanation that the improvement of the shear strength and disintegration resistance of granite residual soil is due to CaCO₃ precipitation and the surface coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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16 pages, 5530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Strength and Leaching Characteristics of Pb-Contaminated Silt through MICP

by Fusheng Zha, Hao Wang, Bo Kang, Congmin Liu, Long Xu and Xiaohui Tan

Crystals 2021, 11(11), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11111303 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2756

Abstract

Microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) is an effective technology for repairing sites contaminated by heavy metals. In this work, Sporosarcina pasteurii was cultured and mixed with a cementing fluid as a binder to remediate Pb-contaminated silt. The effects of varying experimental parameters, including Pb concentration and dry density, were also tested and analyzed. The leaching and strength characteristics and the MICP improvement mechanism of the Pb-contaminated silt were studied. Samples with dry densities of 1.50 g/cm³ and 1.55 g/cm³ exhibited the highest unconfined compression strengths (UCS). Scanning electron microscopy showed that not all CaCO₃ crystals produced a cementation effect, with some filling pores in an invalid cementation form. The results showed that MICP remediation of low Pb²⁺ concentration-contaminated silt could meet the relevant Chinese environmental safety standards. Low Pb concentrations helped improve MICP-treated, Pb-contaminated silt strength, whereas high Pb concentrations significantly reduced this strength. Testing to determine the tolerance of an active microbe, Sporosarcina pasteurii, showed that trace amounts of Pb promoted its growth, thus improving the MICP effect, whereas excessive Pb had a toxic effect, which reduced MICP effectiveness. Mercury injection experiments showed that MICP produced CaCO₃; this mainly filled soil mesopores and macropores and, thus, improved the soil UCS. Scanning electron microscopy showed that not all CaCO₃ crystals produced a cementation effect, with some filling pores in an invalid cementation form. MICP was innovatively applied to silt sites with heavy metal pollutants while considering the soil compaction in actual construction, thus broadening the application scope of MICP, optimizing the construction process, and reducing the construction cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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13 pages, 5500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calcium Carbonate Growth with the Ring Structure of Stalactite-Type Minerals in a Tuff Breccia

by Ryo Uenishi and Hitoshi Matsubara

Crystals 2021, 11(9), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11091117 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2989

Abstract

Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) has attracted worldwide attention as an environmentally friendly ground restoration technology in response to geohazards. This study describes the relationship between calcium carbonate growth within stalactite-type minerals formed around fractures in tuff breccia and microorganisms. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that calcium carbonate was precipitated in the interstices of rings formed in stalactite-type minerals, as if the carbonate minerals enhanced the strength of the silicate minerals. In addition, X-ray powder diffraction analysis detected that the calcium carbonates were calcite and vaterite. Moreover, microorganisms, such as diatoms and green algae, inhabited the interstices and, consequently, MICP by these microorganisms could play a role in the stability of outcrops. The stable isotope ratios of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N and the mass spectral signals of the demineralized samples also encouraged diatoms and green algae to be involved in the formation of minerals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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23 pages, 81084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Erosion Resistance Performance of Pisha Sandstone Weathered Soil Using MICP Technology

by Yanxing Wang, Chi Li, Cuiyan Wang and Yu Gao

Crystals 2021, 11(9), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11091112 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2487

Abstract

In this study, we applied microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) technology to improve the undesirable characteristics of Pisha sandstone weathered soil that collapses easily upon environmental erosion. Through disintegration tests and wind erosion tests, the anti-water scour and anti-sand erosion performance of the weathered soil was tested before and after the improvement. Combined with an analysis of the physical properties and pore structure of the samples, this paper analyzes the internal mechanism by which MICP technology improves the poor characteristics of the soil. The results show that after improvement with the use of MICP technology, effective cementation is formed between the soil particles to form a solidified material with a strength of up to 1 MPa with a precipitated carbonate content of up to 15%, which effectively improves the water erosion resistance and wind erosion resistance. The disintegration rate of the improved soil sample was only 1.95% at the 30th minute, the remolded soil completely disintegrated, and the undisturbed soil reached 39.64%. The wind erosion resistance of the improved sample is improved, and its coefficient at a 30° erosion angle is increased roughly 20-fold on average when the wind speed is 31 m/s. The internal mechanism of the improved soil when it comes into contact with water and wind is that the induced calcium carbonate crystals fill the pores of the soil particles and adhere to and bridge between soil particles for effective cementation. When the soil expands after water invasion or the soil is destroyed after external erosion, the cementation of mineral crystals on the particles can resist the expansion force and punching force so as to improve the soil’s overall anti-erosion performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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14 pages, 5397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Organic Soil Shear Strength through Calcite Precipitation Method Using Soybeans as Bio-Catalyst

by Heriansyah Putra, Erizal, Sutoyo, Minson Simatupang and Dede Heri Yuli Yanto

Crystals 2021, 11(9), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11091044 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3029

Abstract

Organic soil has a high content of water and compressibility. Besides that, it has a low specific gravity, density, and shear strength. This study evaluates the applicability of the soybean crude urease for calcite precipitation (SCU-CP) method and its effectiveness in organic soil as a soil-amelioration technique. Various soybean concentrations were mixed with a reagent composed of urea and calcium chloride to produce the treatment solution. Its effect on the hydrolysis rate, pH, and amount of precipitated calcite was evaluated through test-tube experiments. SEM-EDS tests were performed to observe the mineralogy and morphology of the untreated and treated samples. The treatment solution composed of the reagent and various concentrations of soybeans was applied to organic soil. The increasing strength of the organic soil was evaluated using direct shear (DS) and unconfined compression (UCS) tests. The test-tube results show that a hydrolysis rate of 1600 u/g was obtained when using 50 g/L of soybeans with a precipitation ratio of 100%. The mechanical tests show a significant enhancement in the parameters of the organic soil’s shear strength. A shear strength improvement of 50% was achieved in this study. A UCS of 148 kPa and cohesion of 50 kPa was obtained in the treated samples of organic soil. This research elucidates that the SCU-CP is an effective technique for improving organic soil’s shear strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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15 pages, 7759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Mediated Soil Improvement Using Plant Derived Enzyme in Addition to Magnesium Ion

by Md Al Imran, Kazunori Nakashima and Satoru Kawasaki

Crystals 2021, 11(5), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11050516 - 6 May 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4495

Abstract

Recently, soil improvement using EICP (Enzyme-Induced Carbonate Precipitation) methods in the geotechnical and geo-environmental field has become a prominent interest worldwide. The objective of this study was to develop an improved extraction technique of crude urease from watermelon seeds in both dry and germinated conditions. Subsequently, this study also analyzed the improvement methodology of crystal polymorphs and soil bonding incorporation of various Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ ratios. The optimization of enzyme-mediated carbonate precipitation was also investigated by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. Results confirmed that the precipitated crystals are mainly calcite, vaterite and aragonite primarily (depending on the Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ ratios). Therefore, to improve the bonding capacity in between the sand particles a novel improvement methodology was investigated by adding various Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ ratios. The mechanical properties of the treated soil (Mikawa Sand, D₅₀ = 0.870 mm) specimens were tested by unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and this confirmed the effectiveness of adding various Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ ratios. The results of the UCS tests showed that, the lower molar ratios of Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ can significantly improve the UCS of the specimen (up to 50%) which could be considered a significant outcome for different bio-geotechnical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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Review

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18 pages, 1532 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Carrier Materials in Self-Healing Cement-Based Materials Based on Microbial-Induced Mineralization

by Chunhua Feng, Xudong Zong, Buwen Cui, Hui Guo, Wenyan Zhang and Jianping Zhu

Crystals 2022, 12(6), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12060797 - 3 Jun 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3364

Abstract

Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) technology has attracted widespread research attention owing to its application in crack healing for cement-based materials in an intelligent and environmentally friendly manner. However, the high internal alkalinity, low nutrient content, and dense structure of cement-based materials have restricted its application in self-healing cement-based materials. Various carrier materials have been widely used for the immobilization of microorganisms in recent years. Carrier materials have significantly increased the ability of microorganisms to withstand extreme conditions (high temperature, high alkali, etc.) and have provided new ideas for the compatibility of microorganisms with cement-based materials. In this study, the basic principles of microbial self-healing technology in cement-based materials and microbial immobilization methods and the influencing factors are introduced, followed by a review of the research progress and application effects of different types of carrier materials, such as aggregate, low-alkali cementitious materials, organic materials, and microcapsules. Finally, the current problems and promising development directions of microbial carrier materials are summarized to provide useful references for the future development of microbial carriers and self-healing cement-based materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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30 pages, 11117 KiB

Open AccessReview

Critical Review of Solidification of Sandy Soil by Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation (MICP)

by Liuxia Chen, Yuqi Song, Jicheng Huang, Chenhuan Lai, Hui Jiao, Hao Fang, Junjun Zhu and Xiangyang Song

Crystals 2021, 11(12), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11121439 - 23 Nov 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5384

Abstract

Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a promising technology for solidifying sandy soil, ground improvement, repairing concrete cracks, and remediation of polluted land. By solidifying sand into soil capable of growing shrubs, MICP can facilitate peak and neutralization of CO₂ emissions because each square meter of shrub can absorb 253.1 grams of CO₂ per year. In this paper, based on the critical review of the microbial sources of solidified sandy soil, models used to predict the process of sand solidification and factors controlling the MICP process, current problems in microbial sand solidification are analyzed and future research directions, ideas and suggestions for the further study and application of MICP are provided. The following topics are considered worthy of study: (1) MICP methods for evenly distributing CaCO₃ deposit; (2) minimizing NH₄⁺ production during MICP; (3) mixed fermentation and interaction of internal and exogenous urea-producing bacteria; (4) MICP technology for field application under harsh conditions; (5) a hybrid solidification method by combining MICP with traditional sand barrier and chemical sand consolidation; and (6) numerical model to simulate the erosion resistance of sand treated by MICP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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17 pages, 2631 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review and Recalculation of Growth and Nucleation Kinetics for Calcite, Vaterite and Amorphous Calcium Carbonate

by Luke Bergwerff and Leon A. van Paassen

Crystals 2021, 11(11), 1318; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11111318 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3417

Abstract

The precipitation of calcium carbonate is well studied in many fields of research and industry. Despite the fact that, or perhaps because of the fact that, it is well studied in many fields, different approaches have been used to describe the kinetics of the precipitation process. The aim of this study was to collect and compare the data available in the literature and find a consistent method to describe the kinetics of growth and nucleation of the various polymorphs of calcium carbonate. Inventory of the available data showed that a significant number of the literature sources were incomplete in providing the required information to recalculate the kinetic constants. Using a unified method, we obtained a unique set of parameters to describe the kinetics for growth for calcite, vaterite and amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) and nucleation for vaterite and ACC. Recalculation of the kinetic constants demonstrated that calcite confirmed there are two growth mechanisms within one polymorph, namely pure spiral growth and spiral growth mixed with surface nucleation. The spiral growth does not show second-order growth, which is typically attributed to it. Re-evaluation of the available nucleation data confirmed the suggested existence of a second pure ACC polymorph with a solubility product between 10^−5.87 and 10^−5.51 mol² kg_w⁻². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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20 pages, 3606 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reinforcement of Recycled Aggregate by Microbial-Induced Mineralization and Deposition of Calcium Carbonate—Influencing Factors, Mechanism and Effect of Reinforcement

by Chunhua Feng, Buwen Cui, Haidong Ge, Yihong Huang, Wenyan Zhang and Jianping Zhu

Crystals 2021, 11(8), 887; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11080887 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4873

Abstract

Recycled aggregate is aggregate prepared from construction waste. With the development of a global economy and people’s attention to sustainable development, recycled aggregate has shown advantages in replacing natural aggregate in the production of concrete due to its environmental friendliness, low energy consumption, and low cost. Recycled aggregate exhibits high water absorption and a multi-interface transition zone, which limits its application scope. Researchers have used various methods to improve the properties of recycled aggregate, such as microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) technology. In this paper, the results of recent studies on the reinforcement of recycled aggregate by MICP technology are synthesized, and the factors affecting the strengthening effect of recycled aggregate are reviewed. Moreover, the strengthening mechanism, advantages and disadvantages of MICP technology are summarized. After the modified treatment, the aggregate performance is significantly improved. Regardless of whether the aggregate was used in mortar or concrete, the mechanical properties of the specimens were clearly improved. However, there are some issues regarding the application of MICP technology, such as the use of an expensive culture medium, a long modification cycle, and untargeted mineralization deposition. These difficulties need to be overcome in the future for the industrialization of regenerated aggregate materials via MICP technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Microbially and Enzymatically Induced Carbonate Precipitates)

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