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Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels

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A special issue of Crystals (ISSN 2073-4352). This special issue belongs to the section "Inorganic Crystalline Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 23129

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Guangjie Feng

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College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
Interests: material processing; composites; alloys; advanced materials; microstructures; nanomaterials; combustion synthesis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Yifeng Wang

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College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing Unviersity, Chongqing 400044, China
Interests: brazing; welding; residual stress; FEM simulation; diffusion bonding

Prof. Dr. Dean Deng

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Department of Materials Forming and Control Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
Interests: FEM simulation; welding; deformation; residual stress

Dr. Xiaopeng Li

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School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
Interests: brazing; additive manufacturing; ultra-fast laser processing

Dr. Dongqing Yang

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Guest Editor

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
Interests: welding of high strength steel; wire and arc additive manufacturing

Dr. Shaojie Wu

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Guest Editor

College of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin Unviersity, Tianjin 300350, China
Interests: additive manufacturing; intelligent welding; arc welding

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Steel is a traditional and important structural material. It is applied widely in many fields, such as the automotive industry, building industry, and petrochemical industry. Although many new materials have been emerging all the time, steel is still irreplaceable in many specific conditions. After decades of development, there are different kinds of steel, such as low-carbon steel, stainless steel, high-strength steel, ultra-high-strength steel, weathering resistant steel, wear-resistant steel, etc. The microstructures and properties of steels are highly influenced by the chemical composition and formation process. For different steels, the phase transformation, the control of grains, textures and twins, the formation processes as well as their influencing mechanism on the microstructure and properties are different and are still the main issues that need to be addressed.

This Special Issue aims to bring together state-of-the-art research achievements, including but not limited to the formation and properties of steels, and help researchers around the world better follow the newest research progress and further promote the development of steels.

Dr. Guangjie Feng
Dr. Yifeng Wang
Prof. Dr. Dean Deng
Dr. Xiaopeng Li
Dr. Dongqing Yang
Dr. Shaojie Wu
Guest Editors

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Keywords

steels
welding
phase transformation
grains
textures
FEM simulation
additive manufacturing
formation
metallurgy
properties

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 4765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Tempering Temperature on Retained Austenite and Ductility–Toughness of a High-Strength Low-Carbon Alloyed Steel

by Lirong Sun, Jiafeng Wan, Jiqing Zhang, Feng Wang, Guo Yuan and Guodong Wang

Crystals 2023, 13(8), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13081194 - 1 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1941

Abstract

High-strength alloyed steel has been widely used in engineering equipment because of its exceptional strength and toughness, particularly at low temperatures. However, the performance of high-strength alloy steel has not been fully developed, and it is necessary to further optimize the microstructure and mechanical properties. Therefore, the focus of this study is on the phase transition and corresponding mechanical properties of high-strength low-carbon alloyed steels. Three experimental steels were austenitized at 900 °C for 1 h, followed by water quenching, and were then tempered at 570, 600, and 630 °C. They were denoted as QT570, QIT600, and QIT630, respectively. The results show that appropriate intercritical tempering of QIT600 steel significantly increases the proportion of retained austenite and promotes VC precipitation within tempered martensite in comparison to QT570 and QIT630 steels. The enrichment of multiple alloys improved the thermal stability of retained austenite, which was further demonstrated with low-temperature insulation tests. Meanwhile, QIT600 steel with 18 vol.% of retained austenite achieved a superior yield strength of 1025 MPa, an elongation of 21%, and a cryogenic impact energy of 1.25 MJ/m². The plasticity induced by the transformation of the retained austenite significantly enhanced the strain-hardening rate and postponed necking, thereby increasing elongation. The retained austenite enhanced cryogenic toughness by significantly arresting crack growth and increasing the ability of plastic deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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11 pages, 4969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Temperature Oxidation Behaviors of 321 Steel with Y or Nb Micro-Alloying

by Ximing Yang, Zhijie Zeng, Xu Wang, Xing Li, Chengjun Guo, Xiangpeng Xiao and Bin Yang

Crystals 2023, 13(5), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13050781 - 8 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1588

Abstract

The effects of Y or Nb addition on the oxidation behavior of 321 steel at high temperatures were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffractometer (XRD). At the same time, the oxidation mechanism and oxidation kinetics of rare earth Y or Nb addition are explored. The results show that temperature greatly influences the high-temperature oxidation resistance of the alloys, and the oxidation phenomenon of the alloy becomes more obvious as the temperature increases. Adding 0.5 wt.% Nb or 0.045 wt.% Y elements can effectively improve the oxidation resistance of 321 stainless steel at high temperatures. The addition of rare earth Y can promote the diffusion of Cr in the matrix, leading to increased Cr content in the oxide film and the eventual formation of a dense Cr₂O₃ film, which effectively hinders the continuation of the oxidation reaction. As a result of the Nb addition, the outward diffusion of Cr elements can be effectively inhibited, Cr and O ion bond can be strengthened, the oxidation rate can be reduced, the adhesion rate of oxide film can be increased, and the oxidation resistance of 321 stainless steel can be improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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17 pages, 9942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cooling Characteristics of the Hot-Rolled Seamless Steel Tube Impinged via Inclined Jet

by Yansheng Zhang, Zhenlei Li, Fubo Zhang, Rui Zhang and Guo Yuan

Crystals 2022, 12(12), 1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12121806 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1226

Abstract

The characteristics of flow field distribution and temperature variation of an inclined jet impinging on a steel tube surface at different positions in circumferential directions were studied via numerical simulation. By analyzing the local convective heat transfer coefficient in circumferential direction, it was shown that the downstream and upstream regions had the characteristics of typical asymmetry. As the inclination angle increases, the local convective heat transfer coefficient gradually increases in the downstream region and gradually decreases in the upstream region. When the θ of the top and bottom jet is 30°, the increases in the downstream region are 40.2% and 54.6%, respectively. Based on the study of the local convective heat transfer coefficient and temperature distribution in the circumfluence direction of a steel tube during the cooling process, it was shown that the optimal inclination angle is 0~10°. With the increase in inclination angle, the average heat transfer coefficient shows a decreasing trend overall. With the increase in jet Reynolds number, the decrease in the average heat transfer coefficient gradually decreases. When the inclination angle increases to 30°, the effect of inclination angle on steel tube cooling is obviously stronger than that of jet position. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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9 pages, 5362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Pressureless Sintered SiC Ceramic and Stainless Steel Joints Brazed by AgCu/AgCuTi Alloy

by Qiang Ma, Shengguo Li, Yongwei Chen, Juan Pu and Peng He

Crystals 2022, 12(11), 1574; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12111574 - 4 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1560

Abstract

A high-quality joint of pressureless sintered SiC ceramic (PS-SiC) and stainless steel brazed by AgCu/AgCuTi brazing alloy was realized. The effects of brazing temperature and holding time on the interfacial microstructure and mechanical properties of PS-SiC-stainless steel were analyzed. During brazing, Fe and Cr diffused into a brazing seam, and the typical interfacial microstructure of joints brazed at 890 °C for 15 min was stainless steel/Cr₅Si₃ + FeSi₂ + Ag(s,s)/Cr₅Si₃ + FeSi₂ + Ag(s,s) + Cu(s,s) + TiSi₂ + TiC/FeSi₂ + Ag(s,s) + Cu(s,s) + TiSi₂/Ag(s,s) + Cu(s,s) + SiC/PS-SiC ceramic. Cu-Fe system improved the toughness of the joint, and the shear strength of the joint increased to ~67 MPa. With increasing brazing temperature and holding time, the element Fe continued diffusing into the brazing seam, and the uniformity of Cu-Fe system became worse. Then Cu(s,s) infiltrated into the surface layer of PS-SiC ceramic and FeSi₂ brittle phase gathered in the brazing seam. Then, the brittleness of the joint increased and the shear strength of the joint decreased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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17 pages, 7978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Residual Stress Distribution in NM450TP Wear-Resistant Steel Welded Joints

by Guannan Li, Guangjie Feng, Chongyang Wang, Long Hu, Tao Li and Dean Deng

Crystals 2022, 12(8), 1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081093 - 4 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1815

Abstract

This study developed a thermo-metallurgical-mechanical simulation method to calculate the temperature field and residual stress distribution in the NM450TP wear-resistant steel welded joints. During the simulation, the solid-state phase transformation and softening effect of NM450TP wear-resistant steel was considered. The simulation results were compared with the experimental results, which verified the feasibility of this method. The influences of solid-state phase transformation and softening effect on the welding residual stress distribution were discussed. The numerical simulation results showed that the solid-state phase transformation had a more significant effect on the magnitude and distribution of the longitudinal residual stress than that of the transverse residual stress. The softening effect had a significant influence on the peak value of the longitudinal residual stress and had little influence on the transverse residual stress. Comparing the numerical simulation results with the experimental results, it could be seen that the calculation results of the welding residual stress were in the best agreement with the experimental measurement results when the solid-state transformation and softening effects were considered at the same time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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13 pages, 6684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Residual Stress and Deformation in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

by Guangjie Feng, Hu Wang, Yifeng Wang, Dean Deng and Jian Zhang

Crystals 2022, 12(6), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12060803 - 7 Jun 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5102

Abstract

In this paper, multi-layer and multi-pass arc additive manufacturing experiments were carried out on the Q345 substrate using Y309L welding wire. Based on MSC. Marc software, a thermal-elastic-plastic finite element method was developed to numerically simulate the temperature field, stress field, and deformation during the additive manufacturing process. The effects of the substrate thickness and interpass temperature on the temperature field, stress field, and deformation were discussed. The results indicated that the deposition materials at different positions experienced different thermal cycles, which might lead to the non-uniform microstructure and mechanical properties within the workpiece. The interpass temperature and the thickness of the substrate influenced the residual stress distribution in the additive manufactured structure. A low interpass temperature and thin substrate was able to effectively reduce the tensile residual stress. The thick substrate resulted in a small angular deformation of the substrate during the additive manufacturing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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10 pages, 4133 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Deformation Behavior and Interface Microstructure Analysis of 2205/Q345 Hot Compression Composite

by Xiaoyang Wang, Pengtao Liu, Guanghui Zhao, Juan Li and Chenchen Zhi

Crystals 2022, 12(2), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12020301 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1575

Abstract

The high-temperature thermal deformation behavior of a 2205/Q345 specimen at 850–1100 °C and strain rate of 0.01–10 s⁻¹ was systematically studied by the Gleeble-3800 thermal simulator, which provided a theoretical basis for the optimization of a 2205 duplex stainless steel composite plate. It is found that the deformation resistance of 2205 steel was different from that of Q345 steel. Therefore, the Q345 steel deformed first, the degree of deformation was large, the degree of recrystallization occurred, and the grain was isometric and relatively large. The 2205 steel was subsequently deformed, the degree of deformation was relatively small, and the microstructure retained the original rolled and elongated structure. In particular, 2205 and Q345 show a coordinated deformation trend as a whole at 1050 °C and 1–10 s⁻¹. Under the action of shear stress, there are many fine grains at the composite interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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13 pages, 3673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control of Welding Speed and Current in Machine–Human Cooperative Welding Processes

by Ning Huang, Junlin Zhang, Tiemin Zhang, Xing Zheng and Zhaoyang Yan

Crystals 2022, 12(2), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12020235 - 9 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3166

Abstract

In intelligent manufacturing processes, the dependence of the weld quality on the welder’s skills in manual welding should be minimized. To better control the welding quality, a machine–human cooperative control system was designed in this study, and a skills learning experiment was conducted to correlate the relationship between welding speed and welding current. The obtained skills were then transferred to the control system to control the human welder to achieve the desired welding speed. In addition, to adjust the welding current to control the welding power, the desired full penetration welds were finally obtained. In the present study, full penetration welds with different welding speeds were obtained in a 304 stainless steel pipe having a wall thickness of 2.03 mm and an outside diameter of 113.5 mm using the machine–human cooperative welding process. The back fusion width was 2.3 to 5.5 mm, which met the quality requirements of the weld. This study provides a research direction for effectively solving the problem of the shortage of welders and for helping unskilled welders to produce quality welds, and lays the foundation for developing the next generation of machine–human cooperative intelligent welding system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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12 pages, 7577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Micro-Structure and Tensile Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Metal Weld Joint Connecting Steam Generator Nozzle and Safe-End

by Shuang Qi, Wenxin Xiang, Lixun Cai, Xiaokun Liu, Yonggang Wang, Fangmao Ning, Lei Qi, Weiwei Yu and Jinhua Shi

Crystals 2021, 11(12), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11121470 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1867

Abstract

The safe-end of a steam generator (SG) nozzle dissimilar metal weld (DMW) for pressurized water reactors (PWRs) is the weakest point of failure which is crucial for the safe operation of a nuclear power station. Related to materials micro-structures, a uniaxial stress–strain relationship is the basic input parameter for nuclear power plant design, safety evaluation, and life management. In this paper, the micro-structure and tensile mechanical properties of a DMW of a European pressurized water reactor (EPR) were studied. Vickers hardness tester, optical microscope, and electron back scatter diffraction were used to analyze the micro-structure of the DMW joint. In addition, the residual strain of the DMW joint base material, heat-affected zone, weld metal, and fusion boundary region were studied. Based on digital image correlation (DIC) technology, tensile mechanical properties of the DMW joint were obtained. The results show that an accurate tensile stress–strain relationship of dissimilar metal welded joints can be obtained by using the DIC technique, the weld is the relatively weak link, and the residual strain is concentrated in the heat-affected zone. This study provides valuable engineering information regarding nuclear power plant design, in-service performance testing, and structural analysis and evaluation of welds containing defects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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13 pages, 5705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flow Stress Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of Austenitic Stainless Steel with Low Copper Content during Hot Compression Deformation

by Huaying Li, Lihong Gao, Yaohui Song, Lidong Ma, Haitao Liu, Juan Li and Guanghui Zhao

Crystals 2021, 11(11), 1408; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11111408 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2078

Abstract

In order to study the microstructure evolution and flow stress behavior of as cast antibacterial austenitic stainless steel containing 1.52 wt.% copper, Gleeble 3800 was used for thermal compression simulation test. Through OM and EBSD analysis, it is found that the dynamic recrystallization mechanism of thermal deformation is mainly discontinuous dynamic recrystallization. With the increase of deformation temperature and deformation rate, the proportion of recrystallization nucleation gradually increases. The growth of twins relies on recrystallization and, at the same time, promotes dynamic recrystallization. Considering the influence of strain on flow stress, the strain compensation Arrhenius model is established according to the obtained stress-strain curve, and high accuracy is obtained. The correlation coefficient and average relative absolute error are 0.979 and 7.066% respectively. These results provide basic guidance for the technology of microstructure control and excellent mechanical properties of antibacterial stainless steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation on the Formation and Properties of Steels)

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