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A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Diversity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2020) | Viewed by 82796

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Prof. Dr. Aleš Gregorc

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Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Maribor, Pivola 10, 2311 Hoče, Slovenia
Interests: honey bee; insect toxicology; cell biology; varroa; queen rearing; bee breeding
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Managed honey bees are subject to numerous internal and external pressures, including exposure to various pathogens, lack of diversity of food sources, and management problems. Bees are exposed to agrochemicals and a variety of stressors that act in isolation or, more often, in combination. Our understanding of the mechanisms, their interactions, and interpretation of factors that reduce honey bee vitality or even bee deaths needs intensive studies. The presenting biology of colony health and effected mechanisms caused by stress factors and their interactions are important objectives to be presented in this Special Issue of Diversity. Furthermore, the studies presented in this Special Issue of Diversity will be targeted at honey bees as individual or social organisms responding to a variety of pathogens causing American and European foulbroods, varroosis, mycosis, and other diseases. Factors such as environment stressors, honey bee colony management, and beekeeping practices also factor in colonies’ survival and the subject of a variety of studies and are welcomed for publication. Attention will be also given to the effects of pesticides on bees and their survival.

In this Diversity Special Issue entitled “Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses", we encourage researchers to present new studies of nature, mechanisms, and relative importance of the potential factors in the recent losses in the beekeeping sector. The apparent lack of reliable and comparable experimental laboratory and field data on honey bee colony losses may encourage researchers to perform and publish new studies of the factors, their synergistic interactions, and mechanisms contributing to colony losses worldwide.

Prof. Aleš Gregorc
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Honey bee diseases
Stressors
Pathology
Honey bee mortalities
Colonies management

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 184 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses: A Special Issue

by Aleš Gregorc

Diversity 2020, 12(10), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100403 - 17 Oct 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3869

Abstract

In recent decades, independent national and international research programs have revealed possible reasons for the death of managed honey bee colonies worldwide. Such losses are not due to a single factor, but instead are due to highly complex interactions between various internal and external influences, including pests, pathogens, honey bee stock diversity, and environmental change. Reduced honey bee vitality and nutrition, exposure to agrochemicals, and quality of colony management contribute to reduced colony survival in beekeeping operations. Our Special Issue (SI) on ‘’Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses’’ aims to address specific challenges facing honey bee researchers and beekeepers. This SI includes four reviews, with one being a meta-analysis that identifies gaps in the current and future directions for research into honey bee colonies mortalities. Other review articles include studies regarding the impact of numerous factors on honey bee mortality, including external abiotic factors (e.g., winter conditions and colony management) as well as biotic factors such as attacks by Vespa velutina and Varroa destructor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

Research

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20 pages, 3350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IoT-Driven Workflows for Risk Management and Control of Beehives

by Charbel Kady, Anna Maria Chedid, Ingred Kortbawi, Charles Yaacoub, Adib Akl, Nicolas Daclin, François Trousset, François Pfister and Gregory Zacharewicz

Diversity 2021, 13(7), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13070296 - 29 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4378

Abstract

The internet of things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 technologies are becoming widely used in the field of apiculture to enhance honey production and reduce colony losses using connected scales combined with additional data, such as relative humidity and internal temperature. This paper exploits beehive weight measurements and builds appropriate business rules using two instruments. The first is an IoT fixed scale installed on one hive, taking rich continuous measurements, and used as a reference. The second is a portable nomad scale communicating with a smartphone and used for the remaining hives. A key contribution will be the run and triggering of a business process model based on apicultural business rules learned from experience and system observed events. Later, the evolution of the weight of each individual hive, obtained by either measurement or inference, will be associated with a graphical workflow diagram expressed with the business process model and notation (BPMN) language, and will trigger events that inform beekeepers to initiate relevant action. Finally, the BPMN processes will be transformed into executable models for model driven decision support. This contribution improves amateur and professional user-experience for honeybee keeping and opens the door for interoperability between the suggested model and other available simulations (weather, humidity, bee colony behavior, etc.). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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27 pages, 2576 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Austrian COLOSS Survey of Honey Bee Colony Winter Losses 2018/19 and Analysis of Hive Management Practices

by Hannes Oberreiter and Robert Brodschneider

Diversity 2020, 12(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12030099 - 13 Mar 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 7262

Abstract

We conducted a citizen science survey on overwinter honey bee colony losses in Austria. A total of 1534 beekeepers with 33,651 colonies reported valid loss rates. The total winter loss rate for Austria was 15.2% (95% confidence interval: 14.4–16.1%). Young queens showed a positive effect on colony survival and queen-related losses. Observed queen problems during the season increased the probability of losing colonies to unsolvable queen problems. A notable number of bees with crippled wings during the foraging season resulted in high losses and could serve as an alarm signal for beekeepers. Migratory beekeepers and large operations had lower loss rates than smaller ones. Additionally, we investigated the impact of several hive management practices. Most of them had no significant effect on winter mortality, but purchasing wax from outside the own operation was associated with higher loss rates. Colonies that reported foraging on maize and late catch crop fields or collecting melezitose exhibited higher loss rates. The most common Varroa destructor control methods were a combination of long-term formic acid treatment in summer and oxalic acid trickling in winter. Biotechnical methods in summer had a favourable effect on colony survival. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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18 pages, 1967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring the Field-Realistic Exposure of Honeybee Colonies to Neonicotinoids by An Integrative Approach: A Case Study in Romania

by Eliza Căuia, Adrian Siceanu, Gabriela Oana Vișan, Dumitru Căuia, Teodora Colța and Roxana Antoaneta Spulber

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010024 - 6 Jan 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5316

Abstract

Honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) are excellent biosensors that can be managed to collect valuable information about environmental contamination. The main objective of the present study was to design and apply an integrative protocol to monitor honeybee colony activity and sample collection by using electronic technologies combined with classical methods in order to evaluate the exposure of honeybees to the neonicotinoids that are used in melliferous intensive crops. The monitored honeybee colonies were especially prepared and equipped to maximize their chances to collect representative samples in order to express, as well as possible, the pesticide residues that existed in the targeted crops. The samples of honey, pollen and honeybees were collected, preserved and prepared to fulfill the required quality and quantity criteria of the accredited laboratories. In total, a set of fifty samples was collected from fields, located in different areas of intensive agriculture in Romania, and was analyzed for five neonicotinoids. The obtained results show that 48% of the total analyzed samples (n = 50) contained one or more detected or quantified neonicotinoid residues. The main conclusion is that the proposed approach for sample collection and preparation could improve the evaluation methodologies for analyzing honeybees’ exposure to pesticides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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10 pages, 2015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydroxymethylfurfural Affects Caged Honey Bees (Apis mellifera carnica)

by Aleš Gregorc, Snežana Jurišić and Blair Sampson

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010018 - 31 Dec 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5172

Abstract

A high concentration of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) (e.g., 15 mg HMF per kg honey) indicates quality deterioration for a wide range of foods. In honey bee colonies, HMF in stored honey can negatively affect bee health and survival. Therefore, in the laboratory, we experimentally determined the effects of HMF on the longevity and midgut integrity of worker Apis mellifera carnica by feeding bees standard diets containing five concentrations of HMF (100, 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm). Simultaneously, we also examined HMF’s effect on Nosema ceranae spore counts within infected honey bees. We performed an immunohistochemical analysis of the honey bee midgut to determine possible changes at the cellular level. No correlation was established between HMF concentration and N. ceranae spore counts. Negative effects of HMF on bees were not observed in the first 15 days of exposure. However, after 15 to 30 days of exposure, HMF caused midgut cells to die and an increased mortality of honey bee workers across treatment groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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16 pages, 890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Survey from 2015 to 2019 to Investigate the Occurrence of Pesticide Residues in Dead Honeybees and Other Matrices Related to Honeybee Mortality Incidents in Italy

by Marianna Martinello, Chiara Manzinello, Alice Borin, Larisa Elena Avram, Nicoletta Dainese, Ilenia Giuliato, Albino Gallina and Franco Mutinelli

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010015 - 27 Dec 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4845

Abstract

Honeybee health can be compromised not only by infectious and infesting diseases, but also by the acute or chronic action of certain pesticides. In recent years, there have been numerous reports of colony mortality by Italian beekeepers, but the investigations of these losses have been inconsistent, both in relation to the type of personnel involved (beekeepers, official veterinarians, members of the police force, etc.) and the procedures utilized. It was therefore deemed necessary to draw up national guidelines with the aim of standardizing sampling active ties. In this paper, we present the results of a survey carried out in Italy from 2015 to 2019, following these guidelines. Residues of 150 pesticides in 696 samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS. On average, 50% of the honeybee samples were positive for one or more pesticides with an average of 2 different pesticides per sample and a maximum of seven active ingredients, some of which had been banned in Europe or were not authorized in Italy. Insecticides were the most frequently detected, mainly belonging to the pyrethroid group (49%, above all tau-fluvalinate), followed by organophosphates (chlorpyrifos, 18%) and neonicotinoids (imidacloprid, 7%). This work provides further evidence of the possible relationship between complex pesticide exposure and honeybee mortality and/or depopulation of hives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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14 pages, 2220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control of Varroa destructor Mite Infestations at Experimental Apiaries Situated in Croatia

by Ivana Tlak Gajger, Lidija Svečnjak, Dragan Bubalo and Tomislav Žorat

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010012 - 25 Dec 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4153

Abstract

Experimental varroacidal treatments of honey bee colonies were conducted on five apiaries (EA1–EA5) situated at five different geographical and climatic locations across Croatia. The aim of this study was to assess the comparative efficacy of CheckMite+ (Bayer, Germany), Apiguard (Vita Europe Ltd.; England), Bayvarol, C, (Bayer, Germany), Thymovar, (Andrma BioVet GmbH, Germany), and ApiLife Var, (Chemicals Laif SPA; Vigonza, Italy) for controlling the honey bee obligatory parasitic mite Varroa destructor in different conditions in the field during summer treatment. The relative varroa mite mortality after treatments with applied veterinary medicinal products were EA1 (59.24%), EA2 (47.31%), EA3 (36.75%), EA4 (48.33%), and EA5 (16.78%). Comparing the relative efficacy of applied varroacides, the best effect was achieved with CheckMite+, and the lowest for honey bee colonies treated with Apiguard (statistically significant difference was confirmed; p < 0.05). Considering the lower efficacy of thymol-based veterinary medicinal products observed on all EA in these study conditions, it may be concluded that their use is limited under different treatment regimes. Despite unfavourable weather and environmental conditions, with exceptions of EA5/EA5′ and EA1, the relative varroacidal efficacy of authorized veterinary medicinal product treatments in moderately infested honey bee colonies ensured normal overwintering and colony development during next spring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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9 pages, 3966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Population Growth and Insecticide Residues of Honey Bees in Tropical Agricultural Landscapes

by Damayanti Buchori, Akhmad Rizali, Windra Priawandiputra, Dewi Sartiami and Midzon Johannis

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010001 - 18 Dec 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4951

Abstract

Global decline of pollinators, especially bees, has been documented in many countries. Several causes such as land-use change and agricultural intensification are reported to be the main drivers of the decline. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of land use on honey bee and stingless bee populations. Research was conducted in Bogor and Malang to compare between two different geographical areas. Managed bees such as honey bees (Apis cerana and A. mellifera) and stingless bees (Tetragonula laeviceps) were investigated to examine the effect of agricultural intensification. Field experiments were conducted by placing beehives in selected habitats (i.e., beekeeper gardens, forests areas, and agriculture areas). Population growth and neonicotinoid residue analysis of bees in different hive locations were measured to study the effect of habitat type. Population growth of bees represents the forager abundance and colony weight. Based on the analysis, we found that habitat type affected forager abundance and colony weight of honey bees (p < 0.05), although the patterns were different between species, region, as well as season. Forests could support the stingless bee colony better than agriculture and home garden habitats. Insecticide (neonicotinoid) was barely recorded in both honey bees and stingless bees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

13 pages, 2779 KiB

Open AccessReview

Impact of Stressors on Honey Bees (Apis mellifera; Hymenoptera: Apidae): Some Guidance for Research Emerge from a Meta-Analysis

by Tiphaine Havard, Marion Laurent and Marie-Pierre Chauzat

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010007 - 20 Dec 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6653

Abstract

Bees play an essential role in plant pollination and their decline is a threat to crop yields and biodiversity sustainability. The causes of their decline have not yet been fully identified, despite the numerous studies that have been carried out, especially on Apis mellifera. This meta-analysis was conducted to identify gaps in the current research and new potential directions for research. The aim of this analysis of 293 international scientific papers was to achieve an inventory of the studied populations, the stressors and the methods used to study their impact on Apis mellifera. It also aimed to investigate the stressors with the greatest impact on bees and explore whether the evidence for an impact varies according to the type of study or the scale of study. According to this analysis, it is important to identify the populations and the critical developmental stages most at risk, and to determine the differences in stress sensibility between subspecies. This meta-analysis also showed that studies on climate change or habitat fragmentation were lacking. Moreover, it highlighted that technical difficulties in the field and the buffer effect of the colony represent methodological and biological barriers that are still difficult to overcome. Mathematical modeling or radio frequency identification (RFID) chips represent promising ways to overcome current methodological difficulties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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15 pages, 5372 KiB

Open AccessReview

Vespa velutina: An Alien Driver of Honey Bee Colony Losses

by Daniela Laurino, Simone Lioy, Luca Carisio, Aulo Manino and Marco Porporato

Diversity 2020, 12(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12010005 - 20 Dec 2019

Cited by 83 | Viewed by 12429

Abstract

Vespa velutina, or Asian yellow-legged hornet, was accidentally introduced from China to other parts of the world: South Korea in 2003, Europe in 2004, and Japan in 2012. V. velutina represents a serious threat to native pollinators. It is known to be a fierce predator of honey bees, but can also hunt wild bees, native wasps, and other flying insects. When V. velutina colonies are developed, many hornets capture foraging bees which are coming back to their hives, causing an increase in homing failure and paralysis of foraging thus leading to colony collapse. The hornets may enter weak beehives to prey on brood and pillage honey. Unlike Apis cerana, Apis mellifera is unable to cope with the predation pressure of V. velutina. Monitoring the spread of an invasive alien species is crucial to plan appropriate management actions and activities to limit the expansion of the species. In addition, an early detection of V. velutina in areas far away from the expansion front allows a rapid response aimed to remove these isolated populations before the settlement of the species. Where V. velutina is now established, control measures to prevent colony losses must be implemented with an integrated pest management approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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11 pages, 288 KiB

Open AccessReview

Diagnosis of Varroa Mite (Varroa destructor) and Sustainable Control in Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) Colonies—A Review

by Aleš Gregorc and Blair Sampson

Diversity 2019, 11(12), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/d11120243 - 16 Dec 2019

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 10450

Abstract

Determining varroa mite infestation levels in honey bee colonies and the proper method and time to perform a diagnosis are important for efficient mite control. Performing a powdered sugar shake or counting mites that drop from combs and bees onto a hive bottom board are two reliable methods for sampling varroa mite to evaluate the efficacy of an acaricide treatment. This overview summarizes studies that examine the efficacy of organic acids and essential oils, mite monitoring, and brood interruption for integrated varroa mite control in organic beekeeping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

16 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biotic and Abiotic Factors Associated with Colonies Mortalities of Managed Honey Bee (Apis mellifera)

by Boyko Neov, Ani Georgieva, Rositsa Shumkova, Georgi Radoslavov and Peter Hristov

Diversity 2019, 11(12), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/d11120237 - 10 Dec 2019

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 11943

Abstract

Despite the presence of a large number of pollinators of flowering plants worldwide, the European honey bee, Apis melifera, plays the most important role in the pollination of a number of crops, including all vegetables, non-food crops and oilseed crops, decorative and medical plants, and others. The experience of isolated cases of complete extinction of honey bees in individual regions has shown that this phenomenon leads to a dramatic pollination crisis and reduced ability or even total inability to grow insect-pollinated crops if relying solely on native, naturally occurring pollinators. Current scientific data indicate that the global bee extinction between the Cretaceous and the Paleogene (Cretaceous-Tertiary) occurred, which led to the disappearance of flowers because they could not produce viable fruit and germinate due to lack of pollination by bees or other animals. From the Middle Ages to the present day, there has been evidence that honey bees have always overcome the adverse factors affecting them throughout the ages, after which their population has fully recovered. This fact must be treated with great care given the emergence of a new, widespread stress factor in the second half of the 20th century—intoxication of beehives with antibiotics and acaricides, and treatment of crops with pesticides. Along with acute and chronic intoxication of bees and bee products, there are other new major stressors of global importance reducing the number of bee colonies: widespread prevalence of pathogenic organisms and pest beetles, climate change and adverse climatic conditions, landscape changes and limitation of natural habitats, intensification of agricultural production, inadequate nutrition, and introduction of invasive species. This report summarizes the impact of individual negative factors on the health and behavior of bees to limit the combined effects of the above stressors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Honey Bee Colony Losses)

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