Encyclopedia

Definition: Poverty is an important social determinant of health disparities across the lifespan. Poverty also influences other life challenges such as pecuniary instability, food insecurity, housing instability, educational inequality, and limited career mobility. According to the World Bank, more than 700 million people worldwide live in global poverty, surviving on less than USD 2.15 a day. Poverty may also be viewed as a state of deprivation that limits access to resources that address basic needs (i.e., food, water, shelter, clothing, health), limiting an individual’s opportunity to participate optimally in society. A large body of research has identified a positive relationship between poverty and chronic health concerns such as heart disease, diabetes, high cholesterol, kidney problems, liver problems, cancer, and hypertension. This entry examines health disparities associated with economic status, discrimination, racism, stress, age, race/ethnicity, gender, gender identity, and nationality from a social justice perspective. Full article

The kidney, a complex organ crucial for a multitude of homeostatic functions, including the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance, removal of various metabolic waste products, and hormone production, undergoes intricate developmental processes to form functional nephron units. Understanding the mechanisms behind kidney development is paramount for elucidating the etiology of renal congenital disabilities and acquired diseases. The Hippo pathway is known for its involvement in various cellular functions, including cell fate determination and differentiation, and is a critical player in renal organogenesis. Here, we discuss research findings about the roles that Hippo signaling plays in kidney formation. Full article

Clinical reasoning is an essential competence of veterinary graduands. Unfortunately, clinical reasoning and, therefore, the quality of provided veterinary medical services are prone to bias, difficulties, and errors. The literature on biases, difficulties, and errors in clinical reasoning in veterinary medical education is scarce or focused on theoretical rather than practical application. In this review, we address the practicality of learning and teaching biases, difficulties, and errors in clinical reasoning to veterinary learners utilizing a practical example of a cow with a prolapsed uterus complicated by hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia. Learners should be guided through all of the stages of clinical reasoning as much as possible under direct supervision. The common clinical biases, difficulties, or errors in veterinary medical encounters may differ between stages of development of the learner, with more difficulties occurring in earlier stages (Observer, Reporter, ±Interpreter) but more heuristic biases occurring at later stages (Manager, Educator, ±Interpreter). However, clinical errors may occur at any learner development stage. Therefore, remediation of clinical biases, difficulties, and errors in veterinary medical encounters should use strategies that are tailored to the level of development of the learner, but also to the specific encounter (e.g., client, patient, and context). Full article

This entry explores the emergence of ONE Paleopathology as a holistic, interdisciplinary approach to understanding health through deep time. The entry discusses key areas where paleopathological research provides crucial insights: animals as sentinels of environmental health, the evolution and transmission of infectious diseases, the impacts of urbanization and pollution on human health, and the effects of climate change on disease patterns. Special attention is given to case studies involving malaria, tuberculosis, and environmental toxicity, demonstrating how past human–environment interactions inform current health strategies. The entry also emphasizes the importance of indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) systems in understanding and managing health challenges, highlighting how traditional ecological knowledge complements scientific approaches. By bridging past and present, ONE Paleopathology offers valuable perspectives for addressing modern health challenges in the context of accelerating environmental change, while promoting more equitable and sustainable approaches to global health. Full article

Media Education is an educational discipline focused on critical and conscious engagement with media and their languages. Regarded as complex cultural artifacts, it serves as a preparatory phase aimed at developing interpretative and critical skills regarding the media themselves. The objective is to promote a deep understanding of media as cultural and social phenomena, emphasizing that they are not merely technical tools but carriers of meanings and values that shape perceptions of reality and identity formation. This entry explores the evolution of Media Education, from the 1982 UNESCO Grünwald Declaration to recent international initiatives, highlighting the role of the Media Educator as a facilitator in integrating digital technologies into educational contexts. Key aspects include the rejection of an “apocalyptic” vision of the new media (quoting Umberto Eco), the focus on media as carriers of meaning, and the promotion of critical and creative skills essential for navigating the complexities of contemporary digital culture. Full article

This entry examines the growing role of artificial intelligence (AI) in special education. The authors discuss applications of AI in the field, including its uses for personalized learning, adaptive technologies, teacher support, and AI’s potential to address issues related to student accessibility and engagement. The entry draws on recent syntheses of literature, highlighting studies that reveal AI’s capacity to improve educational outcomes for students with disabilities, mitigate teacher workload, and foster inclusion. Despite these promising developments, the authors address ethical considerations, potential biases, and privacy concerns surrounding the use of AI, as well as the need for high-quality research that validates AI’s effectiveness in special education. The authors conclude that while AI can offer substantial support, it should be integrated thoughtfully, guided by empirical research, and accompanied by skilled professional oversight to ensure that it truly benefits students with disabilities. Full article

This study explores the use of digital simulations in STEM education, addressing the gap in systematic reviews synthesizing recent advancements and their implications for teaching and learning by focusing on their impact on learning outcomes and student engagement across general and special education settings. The review includes 31 peer-reviewed empirical studies published in the last five years, sourced from ERIC, Scopus, and Web of Science, and adheres to the PRISMA methodology to ensure transparency and rigor. The findings reveal that interactive simulations are the most widely used type of digital tool, accounting for 25 of the 31 studies, followed by game-based simulations and virtual labs. Quasi-experimental designs dominate the research landscape, often employing pre- and post-tests to evaluate intervention effectiveness. While inquiry-based learning emerges as the most frequently implemented instructional strategy, hybrid and simulation-based approaches also feature prominently. Despite the evident benefits of digital simulations in enhancing conceptual understanding, engagement, and problem-solving skills, research gaps remain, particularly regarding their application in primary and special education contexts. This review underscores the need for diverse research methodologies and broader population studies to maximize the potential of digital simulations in STEM education. Full article

Extended reality (XR) technologies—encompassing virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR)—are transforming cognitive assessment and training by offering immersive, interactive environments that simulate real-world tasks. XR enhances ecological validity while enabling real-time, multimodal data collection through tools such as galvanic skin response (GSR), electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking (ET), hand tracking, and body tracking. This allows for a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive and emotional processes, as well as adaptive, personalized interventions for users. Despite these advancements, current XR applications often underutilize the full potential of multimodal integration, relying primarily on visual and auditory inputs. Challenges such as cybersickness, usability concerns, and accessibility barriers further limit the widespread adoption of XR tools in cognitive science and clinical practice. This review examines XR-based cognitive assessment and training, focusing on its advantages over traditional methods, including ecological validity, engagement, and adaptability. It also explores unresolved challenges such as system usability, cost, and the need for multimodal feedback integration. The review concludes by identifying opportunities for optimizing XR tools to improve cognitive evaluation and rehabilitation outcomes, particularly for diverse populations, including older adults and individuals with cognitive impairments. Full article

This study dives into the essential issue of sustainable water management techniques in East Africa. Recognizing water as a key component of sustainable agricultural development, the study highlights the importance of a complete approach that takes into account technological, socio-economic, and environmental issues. A detailed, comprehensive review of 109 scientific research articles published between 1993 and 2024 was conducted to acquire a thorough grasp of current sustainable water resource management techniques in East Africa. This in-depth investigation sought to uncover major regional trends, challenges, and opportunities in water resource management. Furthermore, the evaluation aimed to identify specific knowledge gaps impeding the region’s implementation of sustainable water management techniques. As East Africa faces rising problems from climatic variability and change, which have a direct impact on water availability and agricultural output, the need for comprehensive policies becomes clear. The review reveals significant gaps in previous research, including a lack of focus on the socio-economic consequences of water management methods, gender dynamics, long-term assessments, indigenous knowledge integration, and climate change adaptation. By highlighting these areas, the study emphasizes the necessity of future research in addressing these gaps and developing more effective and sustainable water management solutions for East Africa. Full article

(1) Background: Since the 1990s, theses and dissertations—a key part of scientific communication—have evolved significantly with advances in information and communication technologies. (2) Methods: This study reviews 99 publications examining these changes, drawing insights from international conferences and empirical studies in the field. (3) Results: Historically, a major challenge in managing PhD theses has been the shift to electronic formats, resulting in the creation of electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs). This shift involves four main tasks: adopting new digital formats, updating institutional workflows between departments, graduate schools, and academic libraries, implementing updated bibliographic standards (such as metadata and identifiers), and utilizing new tools and channels for distribution. With open science becoming a widespread research policy across many countries and institutions, ensuring open access for ETDs is an added challenge—though a substantial portion of ETD content remains restricted to institutional or library networks. Today, ETD management is on the brink of a new era, with advancements in data-driven science and artificial intelligence. (4) Conclusions: The development of ETDs varies significantly across different countries, regions, and institutions due to technological, organizational, and legal differences. It is essential for academic libraries and other stakeholders to address the challenges identified while considering these variations. Full article

Worldwide use of high global warming potential (GWP) hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants for space conditioning and food storage results in significant equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is further exacerbated in developed countries by the current transition from hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants to HFC refrigerants. Under the Kigali amendment to the Montreal Protocol, the proposed phase-out of currently used HFC and HCFC refrigerants has initiated a re-evaluation of some pre-existing refrigerants as well as the development and evaluation of new refrigerants. Making the ideal refrigerant selections for heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration (HVAC&R) applications is thereby difficult in an already overabundant refrigerants market. In this paper, a study of key parameters required of a good refrigerant is conducted, followed by the analysis of refrigerants desired and refrigerants used in two major sectors of the HVAC&R industry, namely commercial refrigeration and residential air-conditioning and heat pumps. Finally, keeping in consideration the global environmental regulations and safety standards, a recommendation of the most suitable refrigerants in both sectors has been made. Full article

This entry provides a comprehensive overview of methods used in image matching. It starts by introducing area-based matching, outlining well-established techniques for determining correspondences. Then, it presents the concept of feature-based image matching, covering feature point detection and description issues, including both handcrafted and learning-based operators. Brief presentations of frequently used detectors and descriptors are included, followed by a presentation of descriptor matching and outlier rejection techniques. Finally, the entry provides a brief overview of relational matching. Full article

Museum education involves using a museum’s resources and collections to facilitate learning for diverse audiences. It includes activities like tours, workshops, and interactive exhibits that promote active, inquiry-based learning. Focused on accessibility and inclusivity, museum education aims to engage visitors, enhance their understanding, and foster a deeper appreciation for cultural, historical, or scientific content to foster active citizenship and lifelong learning in a non-formal learning context. Museum education uses collections and exhibits to engage audiences through hands-on, inquiry-based learning. By integrating digital tools and interactive technologies, it enhances learning through immersive and distance-based experiences. This approach promotes active engagement, critical thinking, and meaning-making, transforming traditional teaching methods. Museums serve as inclusive spaces where knowledge—embodied in artifacts and digital mediators—supports cognitive, emotional, and social development, fostering deeper connections with culture and history. Full article

Wayfinding refers to the process of guiding individuals through built spaces, particularly in environments where navigation may be challenging due to complex layouts. In hospital settings, efficient wayfinding is essential as it directly impacts the experiences of patients, visitors, and staff. This entry focuses on wayfinding strategies in Australian hospitals, where research on this topic is limited. The entry uses a comparative case study approach to analyse various wayfinding techniques for non-emergency services, including physical signage, digital navigation systems, and spatial design elements across six hospitals in Australia. The findings indicate that combining visual cues, digital tools, and spatial planning improves navigation efficiency. However, the hospital size and layout significantly influence the effectiveness of these systems. This entry provides insights into the current wayfinding strategies and challenges in Australian hospitals and suggests further research on global case studies using the comparative framework and definitions provided here. Full article

In the context of digitalizing healthcare systems, digital health sources (DHSs) aim to enhance the efficiency, accessibility, and quality of healthcare services by leveraging technology. Multiple types of DHSs are increasingly established in healthcare, providing direct and wide communication between pediatric patients, parents, and healthcare professionals. Therefore, they are considered promising key tools to improve pediatric disease monitoring and management. At the same time, DHSs have been associated with several issues and risks, such as those related to data sharing, privacy, and the cultural readiness of the users. Yet, discussions in the literature have mostly focused on technical considerations and a user-friendly design. In contrast, the contribution of DHSs to treatment engagement in pediatric populations and data sharing has only partially been discussed. On this basis, we provide an overview of the available digital health technologies and their application in the pediatric population with chronic suppurative lung diseases; we describe the effectiveness in health-related outcomes, discuss possible challenges, and propose some recommendations that may overcome barriers in their everyday use. Full article

Sound transmission, in the form of the telephone, was invented by Alexander Graham Bell et al. in the seventies of the XIX century. Inspired by this development, Adriano de Paiva published in 1878 the idea of the transmission of images at a distance using electricity and selenium. His proposal was based upon earlier work by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who identified the selenium element in 1817, and of Willoughby Smith, who in 1873 identified a peculiar property of this material—its conductivity dependence upon incident light. The 1878 paper of Adriano de Paiva is the first publication proposing to benefit from the properties of selenium in order to achieve electrical image transmission at a distance and, in the words of the author, enable ubiquity—the transmission of sound and image anywhere in real time. This encyclopedia entry delves into the early steps of electrical image transmission, concisely presenting the protagonists and controversies of scientific priority, and mentioning the impact of those pioneering contributions, still mentioned today, approximately one and a half centuries later. Full article

Neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage is a serious condition associated with significant acute and long-term morbidity and mortality. Neurosurgical intervention aims to relieve life-threatening raised intracranial pressure and prevent neurological deterioration. In recent years, advancements in disease understanding have paved the way for clinicians to re-evaluate conventional approaches in the management of affected patients. Examples include various neurosurgical techniques to actively reduce blood products with a view to avoid the consequences of complex hydrocephalus and intraparenchymal injury in the developing brain. In this entry paper, we aim to provide an overview of the current perspectives, pathophysiology and management strategies for this difficult condition. Full article

A polymer is a long-chain molecule formed by linking numerous simpler repeating chemical units, known as monomers, with identical structures. Over the past two centuries, there has been a significant increase in the global production and use of petrochemical-based plastics. This surge has led to widespread ecological imbalances, affecting air quality, terrestrial and marine ecosystems, food chains, and plant life. Consequently, the excessive use of such polymers has created challenges in solid waste management, with methods like bio- or photo-degradation, incineration, landfilling, and recycling proving to be time-consuming and laborious. Therefore, there is a growing urgency for biodegradable polymers due to increasing demand. Biodegradable polymers consist of interconnected monomers with unstable links in the backbone, facilitated by various functional groups. Throughout the degradation process of these polymers, numerous biologically acceptable molecules are produced. This study examines the significance of biopolymers over petroleum-based counterparts, offering a detailed analysis. It is noteworthy that within the spectrum of biodegradable polymers, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) emerge as exceptionally promising candidates for substituting petroleum-derived polymers, owing to their remarkable physical attributes. Therefore, this study provides a systematic overview of PHAs, including their classification, historical background, methods of production, potential challenges to commercialization, and diverse applications. Full article