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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2024) | Viewed by 25842

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Gibran David Agundis Tinajero

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Guest Editor

Center for Research on Microgrids (CROM), AAU Energy, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark
Interests: AC/DC microgrids; hierarchical controls; microgrid clusters; fast-time domain methods; harmonic analysis; stability analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Yajuan Guan

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Guest Editor

Center for Research on Microgrids (CROM), AAU Energy, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark
Interests: microgrids; distributed generation systems; paralleled inverters; control strategy; internet of things (IoT); PV converters; small signal stability; energy management system
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Prof. Dr. Juan C. Vasquez

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Guest Editor

Center for Research on Microgrids (CROM), AAU Energy, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg East, Denmark
Interests: power systems; energy storage systems; microgrids; photovoltaic systems; renewable energy sources; control strategy; energy management systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microgrids emerged as a potential electrification solution for the integration of controlled distributed generation units, including beneficial special operating characteristics. In this way, emphasis has been placed on the potential benefits offered by microgrids, such that the analysis, coordination, and energy management of microgrid clusters for ensuring a reliable and resilient system have been explored for the next-generation electrical power grid.

This Special Issue of Energies focuses on the future challenges associated with the deployment and coordination of multiple renewable-energy-based microgrids. In detail, this Special Issue includes, but it is not limited to, the following:

Transient and steady-state analysis methods for planning and designing microgrid clusters;
Hierarchical control schemes for coordination and energy management;
Resilient-oriented energy system hardening measures;
Resilient microgrid and smart grid frameworks;
Resilient operation management system;
Black-start and self-restoration;
Grid-fault ride-through;
Microgrid protection schemes.

Dr. Gibran David Agundis Tinajero
Dr. Yajuan Guan
Prof. Dr. Juan C. Vasquez
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

AC/DC microgrid clusters
hierarchical control
coordination and energy management
transient analysis
steady-state analysis
stability
power quality
planning methods
resilient control strategy

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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23 pages, 9301 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Testing Algorithms for Controlling the Distributed Power Supply System of a Railway Signal Box

by Marian Kampik, Marcin Fice and Anna Piaskowy

Energies 2024, 17(17), 4423; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174423 - 3 Sep 2024

Viewed by 635

Abstract

Trends in the use of renewable energy sources to power buildings do not bypass objects for which maintaining a power supply is critical. This also applies to railway signal boxes. The aim of the research work was to test the multisource power supply system for a railway signal box with power electronic converter systems and a DC bus, built as part of the research project. The assumption for powering the railway signal box building was to use renewable sources, energy storage devices, and a 3 kV DC traction network as the second required power supply grid. Both power grids were connected by power electronic converters, and the power values of the converters were set based on the calculated power balance values using the values measured at the system nodes and the set constraints. The tests primarily tested the response of the power supply system to changes in load power and power generated by the photovoltaic source, as well as the charge level of the energy storage devices. The correctness of the control algorithm’s operation was assessed based on the recorded power values in the power supply system nodes. The tests were carried out for 60 scenarios that covered all normal and emergency operating conditions. During the tests, delays in response to changes in the power supplied to the converters and the values of circular power flow between the power grid connections were recorded. The recorded delays ranged from 2 to about 50 s and the circular power flows did not exceed 1500 W. Based on the results of the tests, it was found necessary to improve the power measurement system in the power supply system nodes and to improve the quality of communication and the transmission time of measurement data transmission time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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18 pages, 6723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Powering the Future: Advanced Battery Management Systems (BMS) for Electric Vehicles

by T. N. V. Krishna, Seelam V. S. V. Prabhu Deva Kumar, Sunkara Srinivasa Rao and Liuchen Chang

Energies 2024, 17(14), 3360; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143360 - 9 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2991

Abstract

This paper introduces a novel approach for rapidly balancing lithium-ion batteries using a single DC–DC converter, enabling direct energy transfer between high- and low-voltage cells. Utilizing relays for cell pair selection ensures cost-effectiveness in the switch network. The control system integrates a battery-monitoring IC and an MCU to oversee cell voltage and ensure battery protection. A prototype circuit with twelve lithium-ion batteries demonstrates the method’s efficacy, achieving a remarkable balancing time of 48 min during charging with a maximum efficiency of 89.85%. Comparative analysis with other methods underscores the superior performance of the proposed balancing circuit in terms of balancing time and implementation cost. Furthermore, this paper delves into hardware aspects of battery management systems (BMSs) for electric vehicles and stationary applications. It offers an overview of prevailing concepts in state-of-the-art systems, aiding readers in assessing considerations essential for BMS design in various applications. The discussion includes examples of battery packs sourced from commercially available electric vehicles. Subsequently, the manuscript addresses implementation aspects concerning the measurement of critical physical variables such as voltage, current, and temperature, alongside balancing strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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22 pages, 7299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Resilient Prosumer Model for Microgrid Communities with High PV Penetration

by Kihembo Samuel Mumbere, Yutaka Sasaki, Naoto Yorino, Yoshifumi Zoka, Yoshiki Tanioka and Ahmed Bedawy

Energies 2023, 16(2), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020621 - 4 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1840

Abstract

Worldwide energy shortages and the green energy revolution have triggered an increase in the penetration of standalone microgrids. However, they have limited generation capacity and are wasteful when excess generated energy is curtailed. This presents an opportunity for the coordinated operation of multiple prosumer microgrids that absorb this waste to enhance their resiliency and reliability. This paper proposes a reliable prosumer model with an inbuilt energy management system (EMS) simulator that considers the mentioned deficiencies for constructing resilient interconnected prosumer microgrids. The EMS simulator operates in a real-time dynamic environment to coordinate the prosumer components and performs flexible switching for (1) prioritizing critical load by shedding the non-critical load and (2) meeting load demand locally or from other interconnected prosumers. The EMS simulator maintains energy balance by setting limits for the battery energy storage system (BESS) to preserve energy during low generation and performs real-time monitoring. The novelty of this model lies in its simplicity and flexibility, which allows interconnected prosumer microgrids to operate in cooperation without the need for communication. The proposed model is evaluated in a post-disaster off-grid scenario using a single-phase average value model that considers reasonable computation time. The simulation results of the proposed system indicate the preservation of stored energy while maintaining critical resources beyond three days of poor weather conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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15 pages, 2299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributed Nodal Voltage Regulation Method for Low-Voltage Distribution Networks by Sharing PV System Reactive Power

by Xiangdong Wang, Lei Wang, Wenfa Kang, Tiecheng Li, Hao Zhou, Xuekai Hu and Kai Sun

Energies 2023, 16(1), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010357 - 28 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1900

Abstract

With the intensive integration of photovoltaic (PV) sources into the low-voltage distribution networks (LVDN), the nodal voltage limit violations and fluctuation problem cause concerns on the safety operation of a power system. The intermittent, stochastic, and fluctuating characteristics of PV output power leads to the frequent and fast fluctuation of nodal voltages. To address the voltage limit violation and fluctuation problem, this paper proposes a distributed nodal voltage regulation method based on photovoltaic reactive power and on-load tap changer transformers (OLTC). Using the local Q/V (Volt/Var) feedback controller derived from the grid sensitivity matrix, the voltage magnitude information is adopted to adjust the output of PV systems. Moreover, in order to share the burden of voltage regulation among distributed PV systems, a weighted distributed reactive power sharing algorithm is designed to achieve the voltage regulation according to the rated reactive power. Theoretical analysis is provided to show the convergence of the proposed algorithm. Additionally, the coordination strategy for distributed PV systems and OLTC is provided to reduce the reactive power outputs of PV systems. Five simulation case studies are designed to show the effectiveness of the proposed voltage regulation strategy, where the voltage regulation and proportional reactive power sharing can be achieved simultaneously. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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16 pages, 1021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sequential Design of Decentralized Robust Controllers for Strongly Interconnected Inverter-Based Distributed Generation Systems: A Comparative Study versus Independent Design

by Milad Shojaee and S. Mohsen Azizi

Energies 2022, 15(23), 8995; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238995 - 28 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1279

Abstract

Internal oscillations among multiple generation systems in low-voltage stand-alone nanogrids and small-scale microgrids can cause instability in the entire generation system. This issue becomes worse when the coupling strength between the generation systems increases, which is a result of a shorter distance between them and a smaller reactance to resistance ratio. Previous approaches, which were based on the independent control design and considered the coupling effect as disturbances, may fail to tackle this issue when the two generation systems become strongly coupled. Therefore, in this paper a novel method is proposed to handle this coupling effect by designing robust decentralized controllers in a sequential manner to address the problem of voltage and frequency control in a nanogrid. This proposed sequential design is a general technique that is applicable to multiple inverter-based generation systems in a nanogrid or small-scale microgrid. For the ease of demonstration, in this paper the case of two interconnected inverters with LC output filters is studied. Two robust decentralized controllers are designed for the two inverter systems by using the

μ

-synthesis technique. The sequential design takes into account the interconnection line between the two inverters. Moreover, the controllers are designed to be robust against all the parameter variations in the system including the LC filter and interconnection line parameters. The simulation results demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed controller over the independently-designed controllers for the case of two generation systems that are highly coupled due to the short distance between them. Moreover, the proposed controller is shown to be robust against the LC filter and interconnection line parameter uncertainties as compared to the sequentially-designed linear quadratic Gaussian controllers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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23 pages, 13156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Dual Active Bridge-Based DC-DC Converter Topologies, High-Frequency Transformer, and Control Techniques

by Haris Ataullah, Taosif Iqbal, Ihsan Ullah Khalil, Usman Ali, Vojtech Blazek, Lukas Prokop and Nasim Ullah

Energies 2022, 15(23), 8944; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238944 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8770

Abstract

A power conversion system needs high efficiency for modern-day applications. A DC–DC isolated bidirectional dual active bridge-based converter promises high efficiency and reliability. There are several converter topologies available in the market claiming to be the best of their type, so it is essential to choose from them based on the best possible result for operation in a variety of applications. As a result, this article examines the characteristics, functionality, and benefits of dual active bridge-based DC–DC converter topologies and the other members of the family, as well as their limits and future advances. A high-frequency transformer is also an important device that is popular due to high leakage inductance in dual active bridge (DAB) converters. Therefore, a detailed review is presented, and after critical analysis, minimized leakage inductance in the toroidal transformer is obtained using the ANSYS Maxwell platform. Furthermore, this work includes a comprehensive examination of the control approaches for DAB converters, which is important for selecting the most appropriate technique for a certain application. The outcome of ANSYS Maxwell is integrated with a DAB-based boost inverter in the MATLAB/Simulink environment, and the results are validated with the help of an experimental prototype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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19 pages, 5559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bifurcation Stability Analysis of the Synchronverter in a Microgrid

by Juan Segundo Ramírez, Josué Hernández Ramírez, Nancy Visairo Cruz and Rafael Peña Gallardo

Energies 2022, 15(21), 7992; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15217992 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1948

Abstract

Synchronized converters are being studied as a viable alternative to address the transition from synchronous generation to power-electronics-based generation systems. One of the important features that make the synchronous generator an unrivaled alternative for power generation is its stability properties and inherent inertial response. This work presents a stability analysis of a synchronverter-based system conducted through the bifurcation theory to expose its stability regions in a grid-connected configuration with an aggregate load model conformed by a ZIP model and an induction motor model. One and two-parameter bifurcation diagrams on the gain, load, and Thévenin equivalent plane are computed and analyzed. All the results confirm the strong stability properties of the syncronverter. Some relevant findings are that the reduction in a droop gain or time constant results in Hopf bifurcations and inertia reduction, but the increase in the time constant leads to decoupling between the reactive and active power loops. It is also found that the increment of a specific time constant (

τ_{f} > 0.02

s) increases the stability region on the droop gains plane to all positive values. It is also found that a low lagging power factor reduces the feasible operating and stable operating regions. For a lagging power factor above 0.755, subcritical Hopf bifurcation disappears, and also, the feasible operating solution overlaps the stability region. Finally, it is also found how the Thévenin equivalent affects the stability and that the stability boundary is delimited by Hopf bifurcations. The bifurcation diagrams are numerically computed using XPP Auto software. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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Review

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31 pages, 5047 KiB

Open AccessReview

Water Content in Transformer Insulation System: A Review on the Detection and Quantification Methods

by Siti Rosilah Arsad, Pin Jern Ker, Md. Zaini Jamaludin, Pooi Ying Choong, Hui Jing Lee, Vimal Angela Thiviyanathan and Young Zaidey Yang Ghazali

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1920; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041920 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5111

Abstract

Water can be an irritant to a power transformer, as it is recognized as a major hazard to the operation of transformers. The water content of a transformer insulation system comprises the water in the transformer insulation oil and in the cellulose paper. The increase in the water content in the insulation system leads to reduced breakdown voltage, accelerated aging of the oil–paper insulation system, and the possibility of producing bubbles at high temperatures. Therefore, various techniques have been applied to measure the water content in both oil and paper insulation. This article comprehensively reviews and analyzes the methods (technically or nontechnically) that have been used to monitor the water content in transformer insulation systems. Apart from discussing the advantages and major drawbacks of these methods, the accuracy, measurement time, and cost of each technique are also elucidated in this review. This review can be extremely useful to the utility in monitoring and maintaining the good condition of transformers. Based on the reviewed methods and their challenges, a few future research directions and prospects for determining the water content in transformer insulation systems are outlined, such as utilizing artificial intelligence and enhancing current techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Energy Systems: Towards Sustainable and Resilient Microgrids)

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