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New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A3: Wind, Wave and Tidal Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2021) | Viewed by 40673

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Jesús Manuel Riquelme-Santos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Sevilla, Camino de los Descubrimientos, s/n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
Interests: renewable energy sources; photovoltaic systems; cost–benefit analysis; supply and demand; prosumers; self-consumption; electricity markets; farm wind design/optimization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Vindeby began operations almost three decades ago, in 1991, representing a remarkable milestone in wind power development. Although that pioneer facility was recently decommissioned in 2017, the development of offshore wind farms has not stopped growing worldwide.

Much progress has been made since the first offshore power plants began to operate. As a result of the accumulation of offshore facilities expertise during recent decades, it is expected that the LCoE will be less than 100 €/MWh by 2020, and less than 70 €/MWh by 2030. The maturity reached by the offshore wind industry and its continuous improvement will ensure that the offshore wind power industry is one of the most thriving industries in the world.

Although much progress has been made since the first offshore power plants began to operate, there is much that remains which could be improved upon. In this Special Issue of Energies, both academia and industry are all invited to contribute their knowledge and expertise in exploring the state of the art, to survey present challenges, and to take a glimpse at the new trends in the multifaceted and vast area of offshore wind power plants.

The topics of interest for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to:

  • New methods and tools for optimal overall design of large offshore wind farms, taking into account all from turbines to onshore substations, paying special attention to turbine foundations;
  • Techniques and tools to control offshore wind power plants or turbines;
  • HVDC transmission lines and power converters;
  • New methods for better forecasting;
  • Tools for operation and maintenance;
  • Impact of the integration of offshore generation in the day-ahead market and contributions to adjust as well as ancillary markets;
  • Impact on birdlife, marine life, labor creation, and other environmental and social effects.

Prof. Dr. Jesús Manuel Riquelme-Santos
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • offshore
  • windfarms
  • design
  • operation
  • maintenance
  • link HVDC/HVAC
  • substations offshore
  • submarine cables

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 8400 KiB  
Article
A Coordinated Control of Offshore Wind Power and BESS to Provide Power System Flexibility
by Martha N. Acosta, Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt, Juan Manuel Roldan-Fernandez and Manuel Burgos-Payan
Energies 2021, 14(15), 4650; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154650 - 30 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3349
Abstract
The massive integration of variable renewable energy (VRE) in modern power systems is imposing several challenges; one of them is the increased need for balancing services. Coping with the high variability of the future generation mix with incredible high shares of VER, the [...] Read more.
The massive integration of variable renewable energy (VRE) in modern power systems is imposing several challenges; one of them is the increased need for balancing services. Coping with the high variability of the future generation mix with incredible high shares of VER, the power system requires developing and enabling sources of flexibility. This paper proposes and demonstrates a single layer control system for coordinating the steady-state operation of battery energy storage system (BESS) and wind power plants via multi-terminal high voltage direct current (HVDC). The proposed coordinated controller is a single layer controller on the top of the power converter-based technologies. Specifically, the coordinated controller uses the capabilities of the distributed battery energy storage systems (BESS) to store electricity when a logic function is fulfilled. The proposed approach has been implemented considering a control logic based on the power flow in the DC undersea cables and coordinated to charging distributed-BESS assets. The implemented coordinated controller has been tested using numerical simulations in a modified version of the classical IEEE 14-bus test system, including tree-HVDC converter stations. A 24-h (1-min resolution) quasi-dynamic simulation was used to demonstrate the suitability of the proposed coordinated control. The controller demonstrated the capacity of fulfilling the defined control logic. Finally, the instantaneous flexibility power was calculated, demonstrating the suitability of the proposed coordinated controller to provide flexibility and decreased requirements for balancing power. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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17 pages, 8599 KiB  
Article
Impact of Spanish Offshore Wind Generation in the Iberian Electricity Market: Potential Savings and Policy Implications
by Juan-Manuel Roldan-Fernandez, Javier Serrano-Gonzalez, Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt and Manuel Burgos-Payan
Energies 2021, 14(15), 4481; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154481 - 24 Jul 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3364
Abstract
The European Union considers that offshore wind power will play a key role in making the EU the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. Currently, the potential of offshore wind energy is still untapped in Spain. Furthermore, the characteristics of the coastline in Spain [...] Read more.
The European Union considers that offshore wind power will play a key role in making the EU the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. Currently, the potential of offshore wind energy is still untapped in Spain. Furthermore, the characteristics of the coastline in Spain require floating technology, making it challenging to install wind farms due to their current high cost. This work seeks to quantify the impact that Spanish offshore wind energy would have on the Iberian electricity market. Several offshore wind scenarios are evaluated by combining available information in relation to areas suitable for installing wind farms and wind resource data. The impact on the day-ahead electricity market has been obtained by reproducing the market, including these new offshore wind generation scenarios. The introduction of this renewable energy results in a market cost reduction in what is known as the merit-order effect. According to our estimates, for each MWh of offshore wind energy introduced in the market, there would be a market cost reduction of 45 €. These savings can serve as a reference for regulators to adjust their policy framework to boost floating wind offshore generation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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20 pages, 1683 KiB  
Article
Realistic Optimization of Parallelogram-Shaped Offshore Wind Farms Considering Continuously Distributed Wind Resources
by Angel G. Gonzalez-Rodriguez, Javier Serrano-González, Manuel Burgos-Payán and Jesús Manuel Riquelme-Santos
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2895; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102895 - 17 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2261
Abstract
Offshore wind power plants are becoming a realistic option for the renewable production of electricity. As an improvement tool to the profitability of OWFs, this work presents the first complete non-genetic (and non-binary) evolutionary algorithm to optimize the location, size and layout of [...] Read more.
Offshore wind power plants are becoming a realistic option for the renewable production of electricity. As an improvement tool to the profitability of OWFs, this work presents the first complete non-genetic (and non-binary) evolutionary algorithm to optimize the location, size and layout of a parallelogram-shaped offshore wind farm, as the arrangement that is becoming an standard for offshore wind farms. It has been tested in the HRI site. Most relevant economic data influencing the investment profitability have been taken into account. In addition, the paper introduces a new approach to offshore wind farm optimization based on a continuous behaviour of varying wind conditions, which allows a more realistic estimation of the energy produced. The proposed optimization approach has been tested based on the available information from HRI. Obtained solutions present similar values to the actual offshore wind farm in terms of investment and annual energy produced, but differs with respect to the optimal orientation and profitability. The contributions of this paper are: it details the first method to interpolate a continuous distribution of wind rose and Weibull parameters; it presents the first algorithm to obtain a realistic optimal solution to the location+sizing+micro-siting problem for regular arrangements; it is prepared to work with the most complete set of economic, bathymetric, and wind data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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18 pages, 3622 KiB  
Article
Optimal Pitch Angle Strategy for Energy Maximization in Offshore Wind Farms Considering Gaussian Wake Model
by Javier Serrano González, Bruno López and Martín Draper
Energies 2021, 14(4), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040938 - 10 Feb 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2209
Abstract
This paper presents a new approach based on the optimization of the blade pitching strategy of offshore wind turbines in order to maximize the global energy output considering the Gaussian wake model and including the effect of added turbulence. A genetic algorithm is [...] Read more.
This paper presents a new approach based on the optimization of the blade pitching strategy of offshore wind turbines in order to maximize the global energy output considering the Gaussian wake model and including the effect of added turbulence. A genetic algorithm is proposed as an optimization tool in the process of finding the optimal setting of the wind turbines, which aims to determine the individual pitch of each turbine so that the overall losses due to the wake effect are minimised. The integration of the Gaussian model, including the added turbulence effect, for the evaluation of the wakes provides a step forward in the development of strategies for optimal operation of offshore wind farms, as it is one of the state-of-the-art analytical wake models that allow the evaluation of the energy output of the project in a more reliable way. The proposed methodology has been tested through the execution of a set of test cases that show the ability of the proposed tool to maximize the energy production of offshore wind farms, as well as highlights the importance of considering the effect of added turbulence in the evaluation of the wake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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19 pages, 4646 KiB  
Article
Optimal Micro-Siting of Weathervaning Floating Wind Turbines
by Javier Serrano González, Manuel Burgos Payán, Jesús Manuel Riquelme Santos and Ángel Gaspar González Rodríguez
Energies 2021, 14(4), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040886 - 8 Feb 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3256
Abstract
This paper presents a novel tool for optimizing floating offshore wind farms based on weathervaning turbines. This solution is grounded on the ability of the assembly (wind turbine plus floater) to self-orientate into the wind direction, as this concept is allowed to freely [...] Read more.
This paper presents a novel tool for optimizing floating offshore wind farms based on weathervaning turbines. This solution is grounded on the ability of the assembly (wind turbine plus floater) to self-orientate into the wind direction, as this concept is allowed to freely pivot on a single point. This is a passive yaw potential solution for floating wind farms currently in the demonstration phase. A genetic algorithm is proposed for optimizing the levelised cost of energy by determining the geographical coordinates of the pivot points (i.e., the position over which the assembly can rotate to self-orient to the incoming wind direction). A tailored evaluation module is proposed to take into account the weathervaning motion around the pivot point depending on the incoming wind direction. The results obtained show the suitability of the proposed method to solve the addressed problem under realistic conditions. Additionally, the influence of the feasible region defined by the plot and the maximum area occupied on floating offshore wind farm design are also analysed in the proposed test cases. These deployable area constraints are of great importance for the viability of this technology, as it requires more space than classical solutions anchored to a fixed point. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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17 pages, 1724 KiB  
Article
Evolution of the HVDC Link Connecting Offshore Wind Farms to Onshore Power Systems
by Roland Ryndzionek and Łukasz Sienkiewicz
Energies 2020, 13(8), 1914; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13081914 - 14 Apr 2020
Cited by 73 | Viewed by 10735
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of the DC link development and evolution dedicated to HVDC structure for connecting offshore wind power plants to onshore power systems. The growing demand for the green energy has forced investors in power industry to look for resources [...] Read more.
This paper presents an overview of the DC link development and evolution dedicated to HVDC structure for connecting offshore wind power plants to onshore power systems. The growing demand for the green energy has forced investors in power industry to look for resources further out at sea. Hence, the development of power electronics and industrial engineering has enabled offshore wind farms to be situated further from the shore and in deeper waters. However, their development will require, among other technologies, DC-DC conversion systems. The advantages of HVDC over HVAC technology in relation to transmission distance are given. The different HVDC configurations and topologies of HVDC converters are elucidated. In this context, the HVDC grids are a promising alternative for the expansion of the existing AC grid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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17 pages, 7078 KiB  
Article
Impacts of a LVRT Control Strategy of Offshore Wind Farms on the HTS Power Cable
by Thai-Thanh Nguyen, Hak-Man Kim and Hyung Suk Yang
Energies 2020, 13(5), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13051194 - 5 Mar 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2608
Abstract
High temperature superconducting (HTS) power cables are a potential solution for the grid integration of offshore wind farms since the HTS cable can conduct bulk wind power at low voltage levels. However, the transient current through the HTS cable in cases of low [...] Read more.
High temperature superconducting (HTS) power cables are a potential solution for the grid integration of offshore wind farms since the HTS cable can conduct bulk wind power at low voltage levels. However, the transient current through the HTS cable in cases of low voltage ride through (LVRT) operation has a negative impact on the HTS cable operation due to the quenching phenomenon. This paper analyzes the impact of LVRT control strategies on the HTS cable operation. In addition, a coordinated control of wind turbines for LVRT improvement of an offshore wind farm is proposed. The feasibility of the HTS cable application for the grid connection of offshore wind farms is also discussed in this study. The proposed controller is designed for the wind turbine generator based on a type-4 permanent magnet synchronous generator. In the proposed controller, the transient current through the HTS cable is reduced by regulating the machine side power during fault conditions. The feasibility of the proposed controller is validated in the PSCAD/EMTDC program (Manitoba Hydro International Ltd., Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, version 4.2.1). The effects of transient current on the cable temperatures and resistances are analyzed in this study. Simulation results show that the proposed control strategy could reduce the transient current and temperature rise of the HTS cable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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Review

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20 pages, 1743 KiB  
Review
Radial Water Barrier in Submarine Cables, Current Solutions and Innovative Development Directions
by Leszek Resner and Sandra Paszkiewicz
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2761; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102761 - 12 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 11794
Abstract
With wind turbines increasing in size, installed at greater distances from the mainland, and greater depths, submarine cables are facing new challenges. Materials and technologies used so far for the production of submarine cables with lead, aluminium, or copper sheaths make them unsuitable [...] Read more.
With wind turbines increasing in size, installed at greater distances from the mainland, and greater depths, submarine cables are facing new challenges. Materials and technologies used so far for the production of submarine cables with lead, aluminium, or copper sheaths make them unsuitable or even obsolete for modern solutions such as floating wind farms. The article discusses types of submarine cables, their construction, working conditions, and operational factors, with emphasis placed on the role of the radial water barrier. The focus has been placed on dry and semi-dry designs. The article is also devoted to a discussion regarding directions of further development, possible materials, and constructions that may appear in the future. Current research and results regarding the use of multi-layer coatings with the use of thermoplastic block copolymers for the layer with high moisture absorption are also presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Offshore in Wind Farms: Design, Operation, and Maintenance)
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