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Forests
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Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems
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Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Meteorology and Climate Change".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 July 2024) | Viewed by 8928

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Andrej Varlagin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119071, Russia
Interests: ecology; eddy covariance; meteorology; hydrology; plant biology; climate change; carbon cycle
Dr. Julia Kurbatova

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119071, Russia
Interests: eddy covariance; meteorology; ecosystems; atmosphere; ecology; climate change
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

More than two-thirds of the world's forests are dominated by human activities, and the amount of primary forest is in precipitous decline. In Europe, 86 % of the forested area is managed with a different range of intensity. Management can change the forest canopy characteristics (biomass, leaf distribution and area index, albedo, roughness), soil properties (temperature profile, heat and water storage, nutrient and carbon stocks), and understory vegetation with significant impacts on carbon, water, and energy fluxes.

The few currently available long-term flux measurements sites of carbon (CO2 and CH4), water, and energy in undisturbed primary forests are of value for carbon and water cycles, imperiled biodiversity, carbon sequestration and storage, water provision, halting deforestation, and promoting reforestation in future.

Here, we consider primary forests to be forests of native tree species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activities, and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed.

This Special Issue focuses on carbon (CO2 and CH4), water, and energy fluxes in undisturbed primary forests based on long-term measurements using the eddy covariance technique or chamber method.

Contribution can be related to the following:

  • Carbon, water, and energy interactions in forest ecosystems;
  • Effects of extreme climatic events (hurricanes, droughts, floods) on water, carbon cycles and forest functions;
  • Impacts and consequences of the main disturbance factors (fire, windfall, logging) on forest ecosystems.

Dr. Andrej Varlagin
Dr. Julia Kurbatova
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • carbon fluxes
  • water fluxes
  • energy fluxes
  • eddy covariance
  • climate change
  • land cover change
  • climate change
  • primary forests

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 8280 KiB  
Article
Dynamics of Water Use Efficiency of Coniferous and Broad-Leaved Mixed Forest in East China
by Shanfeng Du, Deyu Xie, Shenglong Liu, Lingjuan Liu and Jiang Jiang
Forests 2024, 15(6), 901; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15060901 - 23 May 2024
Viewed by 1102
Abstract
The aim of our study is to understand the patterns of variation in water use efficiency (WUE) in coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest ecosystems across multiple scales and to identify its main controlling factors. We employ the eddy covariance method to [...] Read more.
The aim of our study is to understand the patterns of variation in water use efficiency (WUE) in coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest ecosystems across multiple scales and to identify its main controlling factors. We employ the eddy covariance method to gather data from 2017, 2018, and 2020, which we use to calculate the gross primary productivity and evapotranspiration of these forests in East China and to determine WUE at the ecosystem level. The mean daily variation in WUE ranges from 4.84 to 7.88 gC kg−1 H2O, with a mean value of 6.12 gC kg−1 H2O. We use ridge regression analysis to ascertain the independent effect of environmental factors on WUE variation. We find that WUE responds differently to environmental factors at different time scales. In mixed conifer ecosystems, temperature and relative humidity emerge as the most significant environmental factors influencing WUE variability. Especially at the seasonal scale, temperature and relative humidity can explain more than 51% of the WUE variation. Our results underscore the varied effects of environmental factors on WUE variation across different time scales and aid in predicting the response of WUE to climate change in coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems)
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16 pages, 2941 KiB  
Article
Reforestation Will Lead to a Long-Term Downward Trend in the Water Content of the Surface Soil in a Semi-Arid Region
by Junjun Yang, Lingxia Guo, Yufeng Liu, Pengfei Lin and Jun Du
Forests 2024, 15(5), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050789 - 30 Apr 2024
Viewed by 924
Abstract
The spatial distribution of soil moisture is a critical determinant for the success of vegetation restoration initiatives in semi-arid and arid regions. The Qilian Mountains, situated within a semi-arid zone in China, have been subject to significant water-induced soil erosion, which has led [...] Read more.
The spatial distribution of soil moisture is a critical determinant for the success of vegetation restoration initiatives in semi-arid and arid regions. The Qilian Mountains, situated within a semi-arid zone in China, have been subject to significant water-induced soil erosion, which has led to extensive restoration activities, predominantly utilizing the species P. crassifolia. However, the interconnections between soil moisture and various land cover types within this region remain unclear, presenting challenges to effective woodland rehabilitation. This study examines the surface soil moisture dynamics in afforested areas with varying ages of plantation to determine the influence of tree planting on the moisture content of the upper soil layer. It investigates the characteristics and temporal patterns of surface soil moisture as the age of the plantation increases. The findings indicate that: (1) soil moisture levels follow a descending sequence from natural forest, through shrubland and grassland, to planted forest and mixed forest, with statistically significant differences observed between natural and mixed forests (p < 0.05); (2) young afforested areas (less than 50 years old) have lower soil moisture levels compared to natural forests, shrublands, or grasslands, and the ecohydrological impacts of afforestation become apparent with a temporal delay; and (3) the analysis using Generalized Additive Mixed Models (GAMM) and the application of Kriging interpolation to determine the spatial distribution of soil moisture reveals that in semi-arid and arid regions, several factors have a pronounced a non-linear relationship with the moisture content of the surface soil. These factors include the duration of afforestation, the position on the lower slope, the presence of shade on the slope, and the scale at which the study is conducted. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of soil water content is essential to prevent the potential failure of artificially established forests due to inadequate soil moisture in their later stages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems)
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18 pages, 5417 KiB  
Article
Carbon Dioxide and Heat Fluxes during Reforestation in the North Caucasus
by Elizaveta Satosina, Nurdin Mamadiev, Lyubov Makhmudova and Julia Kurbatova
Forests 2023, 14(12), 2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14122368 - 4 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1329
Abstract
Human impact on natural ecosystems has significantly increased in recent decades. As a result, the structure and functioning of ecosystems are seriously altered. This in turn affects regional weather and climate conditions through changes in the radiation, water, and carbon balance of ecosystems. [...] Read more.
Human impact on natural ecosystems has significantly increased in recent decades. As a result, the structure and functioning of ecosystems are seriously altered. This in turn affects regional weather and climate conditions through changes in the radiation, water, and carbon balance of ecosystems. Investigating the process of natural ecosystem restoration after disturbances is an important issue in the context of climate change. During monitoring observations of greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes in a reforestation area in the Chechen Republic, new experimental data on their seasonal variability were obtained, and their sensitivity to changes in environmental conditions was assessed. Forest restoration and land reclamation are essential components of the low-carbon development and decarbonization strategy of the world economy. Observations of GHG fluxes were conducted in the reclaimed area, which was planted with tree seedlings. One year of eddy covariance flux measurements (May 2022–June 2023) demonstrated that CO2 uptake by the reforestation area in a humid continental climate with hot summers and cold winters is determined by the moisture conditions of the growing season. The cumulative net ecosystem exchange (NEE) for the entire measurement period at the carbon farm was 613.7 gC·m−2. The uptake of CO2 by the reforestation area was observed only due to active seedling growth during periods of sufficient soil moisture (May 2023). During this time, total NEE uptake was 48.7 gC·m−2. Sensible and latent heat fluxes were also dependent on weather conditions, primarily on incoming solar radiation and moisture conditions. For the successful implementation of climate projects aimed at the creation of artificial forest ecosystems with high CO2 uptake capacity, it is essential to develop appropriate hydro-meliorative measures that ensure a sufficient amount of available soil moisture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems)
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18 pages, 9241 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Dynamics of Flux Footprint for a Measuring Tower in Southern Taiga via Modeling and Experimental Data Analysis
by Andrey Sogachev and Andrej Varlagin
Forests 2023, 14(10), 1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14101968 - 28 Sep 2023
Viewed by 1525
Abstract
This paper reports on the location of sources contributing to a point flux measurement in the southern taiga, Russia. The measurement tower is surrounded by a coniferous forest with a mean aerodynamically active height of 27 m (h). Aerodynamical parameters of [...] Read more.
This paper reports on the location of sources contributing to a point flux measurement in the southern taiga, Russia. The measurement tower is surrounded by a coniferous forest with a mean aerodynamically active height of 27 m (h). Aerodynamical parameters of the forest, such as displacement height d and aerodynamic roughness z0, derived from wind speed profile measurements for 2017–2019, were used to estimate the seasonal and daily behavior of the flux footprint. Two analytical footprint models driven by d and z0 were used to estimate the footprint for canopy sources. The Lagrangian simulation (LS) approach driven by flow statistics from measurements and modeling was used to estimate the footprint for ground-located sources. The Flux Footprint Prediction (FFP) tool for assessing canopy flux footprint applied as the option in the EddyPro v.7 software was inspected against analytical and LS methods. For model comparisons, two parameters from estimated footprint functions were used: the upwind distance (fetch) of the peak contribution in the measured flux (Xmax) and the fetch that contributed to 80% of the total flux (CF80). The study shows that Xmax varies slightly with season but relies on wind direction and time of day. All methods yield different Xmax values but fall in the same range (60–130 m, around 2–5 h); thus, they can estimate the maximum influence distance with similar confidence. The CF80 values provided by the FFP tool are significantly lower than the CF80 values from other methods. For instance, the FFP tool estimates a CF80 of about 200 m (7 h), whereas other methods estimate a range of 600–1100 m (25–40 h). The study emphasizes that estimating the ground source footprint requires either the LS method or more complex approaches based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques. These findings have essential implications in interpreting eddy-flux measurements over the quasi-homogeneous forest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems)
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14 pages, 3705 KiB  
Article
Understanding Soil Respiration Dynamics in Temperate Forests in Northwestern Mexico
by José Alexis Martínez-Rivas, Benedicto Vargas-Larreta, Jorge Omar López-Martínez, Cristóbal Gerardo Aguirre-Calderón, Francisco Javier Hernández and Gregorio Ángeles-Pérez
Forests 2023, 14(9), 1763; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091763 - 31 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1216
Abstract
Temperate mixed forests in Mexico are considered highly important ecosystems because of their high levels of biodiversity and capacity to store carbon. The aim of this study was to evaluate temporal and between-forest soil respiration (CO2 efflux) variability, and to assess the [...] Read more.
Temperate mixed forests in Mexico are considered highly important ecosystems because of their high levels of biodiversity and capacity to store carbon. The aim of this study was to evaluate temporal and between-forest soil respiration (CO2 efflux) variability, and to assess the effect of vegetation diversity metrics on soil CO2 fluxes in mixed-uneven-aged forests in Durango, Northwestern Mexico. Soil CO2 efflux, soil moisture, and soil temperature were measured in three temperate forest types. A generalized linear model (GLM) was fitted to analyze the relationship between soil CO2 fluxes and stand variables, diversity metrics, soil moisture, and soil temperature. Furthermore, a two-way analysis of variance was used to assess the effect of forest type, month of the year, and their interaction on soil respiration. Annual average, minimum, and maximum soil CO2 efflux rate values were 3.81 (±2.94), 2.28 (±1.47), and 7.97 (±2.94) µmol m−2 s−1, respectively. Soil respiration was positively related to species richness, aboveground biomass, and quadratic mean diameter; however, forest type did not contribute to understanding the dynamics of soil CO2 fluxes. The results highlight the importance of seasonality, species diversity and aboveground biomass stocks to preserve the ecosystem processes driving soil respiration in temperate forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems)
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Review

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16 pages, 4479 KiB  
Review
A Bibliometric Analysis of the Research Progress and Trends during 2002–2022 on the Carbon Stocks in Terrestrial Ecosystems
by Subinur Sawirdin, Aolei Tian, Lei Shi, Wentao Fu, Shengyuan Cheng, Ümüt Halik and Jiye Liang
Forests 2023, 14(10), 2051; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14102051 - 13 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1765
Abstract
Improving the carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems can effectively reduce atmospheric CO2, which is one of the important ways of mitigating global climate change. The knowledge on terrestrial carbon stock research is relatively mature in the international community; however, the research [...] Read more.
Improving the carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems can effectively reduce atmospheric CO2, which is one of the important ways of mitigating global climate change. The knowledge on terrestrial carbon stock research is relatively mature in the international community; however, the research pulse, hotspots, and trends in terrestrial ecosystems carbon stock research are not clear. To better understand the research focus and developmental directions of terrestrial ecosystems’ carbon storage, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of 6305 research articles between 2002 and 2022, which were gathered from the Web of Science Core Database. The temporal distribution, country/region distribution, co-citation network, keyword evolution and clustering, journals, and authors of the literature were analyzed, and the knowledge domain was mapped using the CiteSpace visualization software. This study established the following three observations: (1) The number of publications on carbon stock research in terrestrial ecosystems continues to expand, and the trend in the number of publications proves that carbon sinks in terrestrial systems remain an important research topic internationally. (2) Important issues concerning terrestrial ecosystem carbon stock research have evolved from monitoring the carbon stock changes in terrestrial ecosystems to the mechanism of carbon stock formation for the realization of monitoring and management under global climate change. Furthermore, the research methodology has evolved from small-scale, fixed-point instrumental observations to large-scale remote sensing and model simulations, with diversifications in research content and methodology. (3) In the future, academic research on carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems will focus more on international and interdisciplinary cooperations, increasing the intensity in surveying and monitoring carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems, and realizing the accurate monitoring, assessment, management, and enhancement of carbon stocks from the integrated carbon stock computation system for “sky, air, and land.” The results of this study comprehensively demonstrate the current status and development of the research on carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems worldwide, and provide a reference for future research on the sustainable management of terrestrial ecosystems within the context of global warming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Water and Energy Fluxes in Forest Ecosystems)
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