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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Health Behavior, Chronic Disease and Health Promotion".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 March 2022) | Viewed by 38234

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Fabrizio Perroni

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Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Section on Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029 Urbino, Italy
Interests: strength and conditioning; team sport; injury prevention; functional recovery
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Dr. Elena Cavarretta

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Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 40100 Latina, Italy
Interests: sports cardiology; exercise; athlete’s heart; echocardiography; oxidative stress; exercise prescription; electrocardiogram
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Dr. Erica Gobbi

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Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Section of Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", Via dell'Annunziata 4, 61029 Urbino, Italy
Interests: childhood and adolescence; affective response to exercise; clinical population and disability; exercise equipment; user-centred approach
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Physical exercise and performance in sports are strongly linked to physiological variables, which are dependent on anatomical, functional, and biomechanical aspects and motor strategies. Understanding the effect of exercise and the acute and chronic dose–response patterns involves studying specific changes in muscular and cardiovascular systems that lead to changes in health and human performance (i.e., wellness and physical activity, the response to different sports, administration of exercise programs, warm-ups and cooldowns, recovery strategies), also due to the strength and conditioning training and athletes’ use of different sport equipment. Consequently, the knowledge provided by scientific studies on performance physiology can be useful to optimize coaching and training programs and aid adequate long-term development of athletes. In-depth understanding of the effects of training stimuli on specific adaptations will contribute to increase the scientific knowledge of how to achieve better athletic performance and reduce the risk of sport injuries. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health aims to create a multidisciplinary discussion on up-to-date scientific data in this area and, for these reasons, we invite all authors to submit original research and/or specific reviews that improve our understanding of “Exercise and Performance Physiology”.

Prof. Fabrizio Perroni
Dr. Erica Gobbi
Dr. Elena Cavarretta
Guest Editors

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Keywords

physiological and psychological responses
exercise
strength and conditioning
biomechanics and bioenergetic of movement
functional evaluation
puberty and development
gender differences
nutrition
oxidative stress
athlete's heart
physiological remodeling induced by acute exercise and long-term training

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

9 pages, 1066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of a 14-Day Altitude Training Camp on Olympic-Level Open-Water Swimmers’ Sleep

by Jacopo Antonino Vitale, Cristian Ieno, Roberto Baldassarre, Marco Bonifazi, Francesca Vitali, Antonio La Torre and Maria Francesca Piacentini

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 4253; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074253 - 2 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2423

Abstract

Despite the common belief that sleep quality at altitude is poor, the scientific evidence to support this notion is still modest. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate possible changes of actigraphy-based and subjective sleep parameters in a group of elite open-water swimmers during a 14-day altitude training camp (ATC) at 1500 m. The study subjects were five Olympic-level open-water swimmers (mean age: 25.0 ± 3.2 years; 3 females and 2 males). All subjects wore a wrist activity monitor and filled a sleep diary for 18 consecutive nights, 4 nights before and 14 nights during ATC. The data were then analyzed at four different time points: before ATC (PRE), the first two days of ATC (T1), and after one (T2) and two weeks of ATC (T3). Training load, assessed as the covered distance (km), session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), and heart rate (HR), was monitored during the week before and the first and second week of ATC. No significant differences in objective and subjective scores of sleep quality were detected, whereas the sleep onset time (p = 0.018; η²_p = 0.83, large) and sleep offset time (p < 0.001; η²_p = 0.95, large) significantly differed among PRE, T1, T2, and T3: elite athletes started to sleep and woke up ≃ 1 h earlier the first two days of ATC compared to PRE (sleep onset time: p = 0.049; sleep offset time: p = 0.016). Further, an increase in the training volume during the two weeks of the ATC was observed, with the most time spent in a low-intensity regime and an increase in time spent in a high-intensity regime compared to PRE. Sleep quality was not negatively influenced by a 14-day altitude training camp at 1500 m in a group of Olympic-level elite swimmers despite an increase in perceived exertion during training sessions. Nonetheless, early sleep onset and sleep offset times were observed for the first two nights of ATC: elite athletes started to sleep and woke up ≃ 1 h earlier compared to the baseline nights. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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16 pages, 2775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urinary Proteomics of Simulated Firefighting Tasks and Its Relation to Fitness Parameters

by Ting Zhu, Yuxiang Hu, Jooyeon Hwang, Dan Zhao, Libin Huang, Liang Qiao, Ankui Wei and Xin Xu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10618; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010618 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2491

Abstract

Firefighting rescues are high-hazard activities accompanied by uncertainty, urgency, and complexity. Knowledge of the metabolic characteristics during firefighting rescues is of great value. The purpose of this study was to explore the firefighting-induced physiological responses in greater depth. The urine samples of ten firefighters were collected before and after the simulated firefighting, and the proteins in urine samples were identified by the liquid chromatography–mass spectroscopy. Blood lactate and heart rate were measured. There were 360 proteins up-regulated and 265 proteins downregulated after this simulated firefighting. Changes in protein expression were significantly related to acute inflammatory responses, immune responses, complement activation, and oxidative stress. Beta-2-microglobulin (r = 0.76, p < 0.05) and von Willebrand factors (r = 0.81, p < 0.01) were positively correlated with heart rate during simulated firefighting, and carbonic anhydrase 1 (r = 0.67, p < 0.05) were positively correlated with blood lactate after simulated firefighting. These results illustrated that Beta-2-microglobulin, von Willebrand, and carbonic anhydrase 1 could be regarded as important indicators to evaluate exercise intensity for firefighters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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10 pages, 608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Previous Intensive Running or Swimming Negatively Affects CPR Effectiveness

by J. Arturo Abraldes, Ricardo J. Fernandes and Ricardo Morán-Navarro

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9843; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189843 - 18 Sep 2021

Viewed by 2349

Abstract

Survival outcomes increase significantly when cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is provided correctly, but rescuers’ fatigue can compromise its delivery. We investigated the effect of two exercise modes on CPR effectiveness and physiological outputs. After 4 min baseline conditions, 30 lifeguards randomly performed a 100 m run and a combined water rescue before 4 min CPR (using an adult manikin and a 30:2 compression–ventilation ratio). Physiological variables were continuously measured during baseline and CPR using a portable gas analyzer (K4b², Cosmed, Rome, Italy) and CPR effectiveness was analyzed using two HD video cameras. Higher oxygen uptake (23.0 ± 9.9 and 20.6 ± 9.1 vs. 13.5 ± 6.2 mL·kg·min⁻¹) and heart rate (137 ± 19 and 133 ± 15 vs. 114 ± 15 bpm), and lower compression efficacy (63.3 ± 29.5 and 62.2 ± 28.3 vs. 69.2 ± 28.0%), were found for CPRrun and CPRswim compared to CPRbase. In addition, ventilation efficacy was higher in the rescues preceded by intense exercise than in CPRbase (49.5 ± 42.3 and 51.9 ± 41.0 vs. 33.5 ± 38.3%), but no differences were detected between CPRrun and CPRswim. In conclusion, CPRrun and CPRswim protocols induced a relevant physiological stress over each min and in the overall CPR compared with CPRbase. The CPRun protocol reduces the compression rate but has a higher effectiveness percentage than the CPRswim protocol, in which there is a considerably higher compression rate but with less efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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10 pages, 1733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences in the Oxygenation of the Left and Right Prefrontal Cortex during Moderate-Intensity Exercise

by Yuta Inagaki, Reo Sato, Takashi Uchiyama, Sho Kojima, Shinichiro Morishita, Weixiang Qin and Atsuhiro Tsubaki

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(10), 5212; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105212 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2520

Abstract

Introduction: Differences in cognitive performance with exercise between men and women have previously been reported. In this study, we evaluated between-sex differences in oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) with moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (AE), which could contribute to noted differences in cognitive function. Method: The subjects were ten men (age, 21.5 ± 0.5 years; height, 171.7 ± 4.8 cm; weight, 65.6 ± 5.6 kg) and ten women (age, 21.4 ± 0.5 years; height, 157.6 ± 4.9 cm; weight, 51.3 ± 6.5 kg). They completed our AE protocol, consisting of a 30-min leg-ergometer cycling at an intensity of 50% peak oxygen uptake, with an initial 4-min rest period for baseline measurement. Measures of the dynamics of cerebral oxygenation included: oxygenated hemoglobin (O2Hb) in the left and right PFC (LR-PFC) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (HHb). The 30-min exercise period was subdivided into six 5-min phases, with the average and peak values determined in each phase. Results: A significant interaction was found between LR-PFC HHb and sex (p < 0.001), with significantly higher values in men than in women in phases 3–6 (p < 0.05). Conclusion: We report a significant sex effect of HHb in the LR-PFC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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9 pages, 1023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Local Cooling to the Lower Body during Recovery Does Not Improve Repeated Vertical Jump Performance

by Chansol Hurr

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 5026; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18095026 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2567

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Local cooling, or cryotherapy, has received attention due to its effects on athlete recovery before or after strenuous exercise. This study seeks to verify the effectiveness of 3 min applications of acute local cooling to the lower extremities between sets of a repeated vertical jump exercise. METHODS: Using a randomized crossover design, twelve subjects performed a total of 3 sets of 30 consecutive maximal vertical jumps and were allowed a recovery period of 5 min after each set. In the recovery period, subjects rested with or without a cooling suit worn on their lower legs. Changes in heart rate, blood lactate, and rate of perceived exertion were assessed. RESULTS: Vertical jump performance steadily decreased during 30 consecutive vertical jumps in all 3 sets; however, no differences in jump performance were observed among the groups. Heart rate, blood lactate, and rate of perceived exertion tended to be lower in the cooling recovery group relative to the control group. CONCLUSION: The current study provides evidence that acute local cooling recovery after a vertical jump exercise may not add any performance benefits but may provide a psychological benefit. The effectiveness of acute local cooling in other functional performances should be addressed in further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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10 pages, 858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Plantar Fascia and Intrinsic Foot Muscles in a Single-Leg Drop Landing and Repetitive Rebound Jumps: An Ultrasound-Based Study

by Masanori Morikawa, Noriaki Maeda, Makoto Komiya, Arisu Hirota, Rami Mizuta, Toshiki Kobayashi, Kazuki Kaneda, Yuichi Nishikawa and Yukio Urabe

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4511; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094511 - 23 Apr 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6512

Abstract

The plantar fascia and intrinsic foot muscles (IFM) modulate foot stiffness. However, it is unclear whether the corresponding ultrasonography findings reflect it. This study aimed to examine the effect of the plantar fascia and IFM morphologies on force attenuation during landing and reactivity when jumping in healthy adults (n = 21; age, 21–27 years). Thickness, cross-sectional area (CSA), and hardness of the plantar fascia, abductor hallucis (AbH), and flexor hallucis brevis (FHB) muscles were measured using ultrasonography. Single-leg drop landing and repetitive rebound jumping tests assessed the ground reaction force (GRF) and reactive jump index (RJI), respectively. The CSA of FHB was negatively correlated with maximum vertical GRF (r = −0.472, p = 0.031) in the single-leg drop landing test. The CSA of AbH was negatively correlated with contact time (r = −0.478, p = 0.028), and the plantar fascia thickness was positively correlated with jump height (r = 0.615, p = 0.003) and RJI (r = 0.645, p = 0.002) in the repetitive bound jump test. In multivariate regression analysis, only the plantar fascia thickness was associated with RJI (β = 0.152, 95% confidence interval: 7.219–38.743, p = 0.007). The CSA of FHB may contribute to force attenuation during landing. The thickness of the plantar fascia and CSA of AbH may facilitate jumping high with minimal contact time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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16 pages, 5772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Characteristics between Bionic Shoes and Normal Shoes during the Drop-Landing Phase: A Pilot Study

by Huiyu Zhou, Chaoyi Chen, Datao Xu, Ukadike Chris Ugbolue, Julien S. Baker and Yaodong Gu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(6), 3223; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063223 - 20 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3395

Abstract

With the development of unstable footwear, more research has focused on the advantages of this type of shoe. This type of shoe could improve the muscle function of the lower limb and prevent injury risks in dynamic situations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate differences in lower-limb kinetics and kinematics based on single-leg landing (SLL) using normal shoes (NS) and bionic shoes (BS). The study used 15 male subject volunteers (age 23.4 ± 1.14 years, height 177.6 ± 4.83cm, body weight (BW) 73.6 ± 7.02 kg). To ensure the subject standardization of the participants, there were several inclusion criteria used for selection. There were two kinds of experimental shoes used in the landing experiment to detect the change of lower limbs when a landing task was performed. Kinetics and kinematic data were collected during an SLL task, and statistical parametric mapping (SPM) analysis was used to evaluate the differences between NS and BS. We found that the flexion and extension angles of the knee (p = 0.004) and hip (p = 0.046, p = 0.018) joints, and the dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of ankle (p = 0.031) moment were significantly different in the sagittal planes. In the frontal plane, the eversion and inversion of the ankle (p = 0.016), and the abduction and adduction of knee (p = 0.017, p = 0.007) angle were found significant differences. In the horizontal plane, the external and internal rotation of hip (p = 0.036) and knee (p < 0.001, p = 0.029) moment were found significant differences, and knee angle (p = 0.043) also. According to our results, we conclude that using BS can cause bigger knee and hip flexion than NS. Also, this finding indicates that BS might be considered to reduce lower-limb injury risk during the SLL phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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12 pages, 1153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Muscle Activation Sequence in Flywheel Squats

by Darjan Spudić, Darjan Smajla, Michael David Burnard and Nejc Šarabon

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(6), 3168; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063168 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3610

Abstract

Background: Muscle coordination is important for rational and effective planning of therapeutic and exercise interventions using equipment that mimics functional movements. Our study was the first to assess muscle coordination during flywheel (FW) squats. Methods: Time-of-peak electromyographic activation order was assessed separately for 8, 4, and 3 leg muscles under four FW loads. A sequential rank agreement permutations tests (SRA) were conducted to assess activation order and Kendall’s tau was used to assess the concordance of activation order across subjects, loads and expected order of activation. Results: SRA revealed a latent muscle activation order at loads 0.05, 0.075, and 0.1, but not at 0.025 kg·m². Kendall’s tau showed moderate-to-strong concordance between the expected (proximal-to-distal) and the observed muscle activation order only at a load 0.025 kg·m², regardless of the number of muscles analyzed. Muscle activation order was highly concordant between loads 0.05, 0.075, and 0.1 kg·m². Conclusions: The results show a specific role of each muscle during the FW squat that is load-dependent. While the lowest load follows the proximal-to-distal principle of muscle activation, higher loads lead to a reorganization of the underlying muscle coordination mechanisms. They require a specific and stable muscle coordination pattern that is not proximal-to-distal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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13 pages, 652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Haematological and Hormonal Biomarkers Predict Fitness Parameters in Youth Soccer Players? A Pilot Study

by Fabrizio Perroni, Silvia Migliaccio, Paolo Borrione, Mario Vetrano, Stefano Amatori, Davide Sisti, Marco B. L. Rocchi, Gerardo Salerno, Riccardo Del Vescovo, Elena Cavarretta, Laura Guidetti, Carlo Baldari and Vincenzo Visco

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(17), 6294; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176294 - 29 Aug 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3297

Abstract

The study aimed to investigate the correlations among immune, haematological, endocrinological markers and fitness parameters, and assess if the physiological parameters could be a predictor of fitness values. Anthropometric, physical evaluations (countermovement jump—CMJ, 10 m sprint, VO₂max, repeated sprint ability—RSA total time and index) and determination of blood (IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A and tumour necrosis factor) and salivary (testosterone and cortisol) samples parameters in 28 young male soccer players (age: 13.0 ± 0.2 years, body mass index (BMI): 19.5 ± 2.2 kg/m²) were analysed. To evaluate the dependence of the variables related to athletic performance, multiple linear regression with backward stepwise elimination was considered. A significant regression equation was found in CMJ (F_(5,16) = 9.86, p < 0.001, R² adjusted = 0.679) and in the RSA index (F_(5,16) = 15.39, p < 0.001, R² adjusted = 0.774) considering only five variables, in a 10 m sprint (F_(4,17) = 20.25, p < 0.001, R² adjusted = 0.786) and in the RSA total time (F_(4,17) = 15.31, p < 0.001, R² adjusted = 0.732) considering only four variables and in VO₂max (F_(9,12) = 32.09, p < 0.001, R² adjusted = 0.930) considering nine variables. Our study suggests the use of regression equations to predict the fitness values of youth soccer players by blood and saliva samples, during different phases of the season, short periods of match congestion or recovery from an injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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11 pages, 383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Different Cadence on Paddling Gross Efficiency and Economy in Stand-Up Paddle Boarding

by Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro, Jordan Santos-Concejero, Aitor Viribay, Borja Gutiérrez-Santamaría and Juan Mielgo-Ayuso

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4893; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134893 - 7 Jul 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4020

Abstract

Background: Due to the importance of energy efficiency and economy in endurance performance, it is important to know the influence of different paddling cadences on these variables in the stand-up paddleboarding (SUP). The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of paddling at different cadences on the energy efficiency, economy, and physiological variables of international SUP race competitors. Methods: Ten male paddlers (age 28.8 ± 11.0 years; height 175.4 ± 5.1 m; body mass 74.2 ± 9.4 kg) participating in international tests carried out two test sessions. In the first one, an incremental exercise test was conducted to assess maximal oxygen uptake and peak power output (PPO). On the second day, they underwent 3 trials of 8 min each at 75% of PPO reached in the first test session. Three cadences were carried out in different trials randomly assigned between 45–55 and 65 strokes-min⁻¹ (spm). Heart rate (HR), blood lactate, perceived sense of exertion (RPE), gross efficiency, economy, and oxygen uptake (VO₂) were measured in the middle (4-min) and the end (8-min) of each trial. Results: Economy (45.3 ± 5.7 KJ·l⁻¹ at 45 spm vs. 38.1 ± 5.3 KJ·l⁻¹ at 65 spm; p = 0.010) and gross efficiency (13.4 ± 2.3% at 45 spm vs. 11.0 ± 1.6% at 65 spm; p = 0.012) was higher during de 45 spm condition than 65 spm in the 8-min. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) presented a lower value at 4-min than at 8-min in 55 spm (4-min, 0.950 ± 0.065 vs. 8-min, 0.964 ± 0.053) and 65 spm cadences (4-min, 0.951 ± 0.030 vs. 8-min, 0.992 ± 0.047; p < 0.05). VO₂, HR, lactate, and RPE were lower (p < 0.05) at 45 spm (VO₂, 34.4 ± 6.0 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; HR, 161.2 ± 16.4 beats·min⁻¹; lactate, 3.5 ± 1.0 mmol·l⁻¹; RPE, 6.0 ± 2.1) than at 55 spm (VO₂, 38.6 ± 5.2 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; HR, 168.1 ± 15.1 beats·min⁻¹; lactate, 4.2 ± 1.2 mmol·l⁻¹; RPE, 6.9 ± 1.4) and 65 spm (VO₂, 38.7 ± 5.9 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; HR, 170.7 ± 13.0 beats·min⁻¹; 5.3 ± 1.8 mmol·l⁻¹; RPE, 7.6 ± 1.4) at 8-min. Moreover, lactate and RPE at 65 spm was greater than 55 spm (p < 0.05) at 8-min. Conclusion: International male SUP paddlers were most efficient and economical when paddling at 45 spm vs. 55 or 65 spm, confirmed by lower RPE values, which may likely translate to faster paddling speed and greater endurance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

11 pages, 731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energetic Profile in Forehand Loop Drive Practice with Well-Trained, Young Table Tennis Players

by Yongming Li, Bo Li, Xinxin Wang, Weijie Fu, Boyi Dai, George P. Nassis and Barbara E. Ainsworth

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(10), 3681; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103681 - 23 May 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3379

Abstract

The forehand loop drive is one of the primary attacking techniques in table tennis and is practiced at a large volume during training. The aim of this study was to investigate the energetic profile of the high-repetition forehand loop drive practice in table tennis. Twenty-six well-trained, young table tennis players performed a treadmill graded exercise test to determine their peak oxygen uptake as a measure of overall cardiorespiratory fitness and an incremental table tennis stroke test with 3-min intervals during the forehand loop drive with a ball-throwing robot at a frequency of 35 to 85 strokes∙min⁻¹. Pulmonary and blood parameters were measured and analyzed with a portable spirometry system and a blood lactate analyzer. Energy contributions were calculated from aerobic, anaerobic lactic, and anaerobic alactic pathways for each stroke frequency. Energy cost was defined as the amount of energy expended above resting levels for one stroke. Repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) with the stroke frequency (35,45,55,65,75, or 85 strokes/min⁻¹) as a within-subject factor were performed for the dependent variables. A Power regression was performed for the energy cost as a function of the stroke frequency. Findings demonstrated a function of Y = 91.566·x^−0.601 where Y is the energy cost and x is the stroke frequency, R² = 0.9538. The energy cost decreased at higher stroke frequencies. The energy contributions from aerobic, anaerobic lactic, and anaerobic alactic pathways at each stroke frequency ranged from 79.4%–85.2%, 0.6%–2.1%, and 12.9%–20.0%, respectively. In conclusion, the energy cost of the forehand loop drive decreased at higher stroke frequencies. The high-repetition forehand loop drive practice was aerobic dominant and the anaerobic alactic system played a vital role. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Performance Physiology)

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