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Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports
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Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports

A special issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142). This special issue belongs to the section "Kinesiology and Biomechanics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2024) | Viewed by 13861

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Pedro Miguel Forte

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. LiveWell—Research Centre for Active Living and Wellbeing, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
2. CI-ISCE, ISCE Douro, 4560-708 Penafiel, Portugal
Interests: sports medicine; epidemiology; Newtonian dynamics; fluid dynamics; biophysics quantitative social research
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue of the Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology delves into the intricate relationship between biomechanics and athletic performance. This issue explores the application of advanced biomechanical analysis techniques in understanding and enhancing physical activity and sports performance. Articles within this Special Issue cover a broad spectrum of topics, ranging from the biomechanics of specific sports movements to the development of novel materials to improve athletic gear and equipment.

Researchers and practitioners in the field of biomechanics will contribute their expertise to shed light on how biomechanical principles can be utilized to optimize training protocols, prevent injuries and maximize athletic potential. Furthermore, this Special Issue showcases interdisciplinary approaches, highlighting collaborations between biomechanists, engineers, physiologists and sports scientists to tackle complex challenges in the realm of physical activity and sports.

Overall, this Special Issue serves as a comprehensive resource for academics, coaches, athletes and sports enthusiasts interested in the intersection of biomechanics and sports performance, providing valuable insights and practical applications to enhance athletic endeavors.

Dr. Pedro Miguel Forte
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • biomechanics
  • sports performance
  • physical activity
  • athletic training
  • movement analysis
  • functional materials
  • kinesiology

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (11 papers)

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17 pages, 3026 KiB  
Article
Design of a Freely Accessible Web Application (Instrument for the Measurement of Balance in Primary Education, IMEP) for the Assessment of Static and Dynamic Balance in Children Aged 6–9 Years Based on Force Platforms
by Julio Martín-Ruiz, Ignacio Tamarit-Grancha, Carlos Cordente-Martínez, Raúl Santamaría-Fernández, Concepción Ros Ros and Laura Ruiz-Sanchis
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(4), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9040281 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 522
Abstract
Background: The proper development of balance is essential in the acquisition of a correct physical condition, as well as in the evolutionary follow-up at early ages, and its periodic evaluation is very relevant in the educational environment. Objectives: The objective of this [...] Read more.
Background: The proper development of balance is essential in the acquisition of a correct physical condition, as well as in the evolutionary follow-up at early ages, and its periodic evaluation is very relevant in the educational environment. Objectives: The objective of this research was to design an accessible web application for static and dynamic balance assessment, based on a force platform and motion analysis software. Methods: The Single leg balance test (SLB), Tandem balance test (TBT), and Y balance test (YBT) were performed on a sample of 75 children aged 6 to 9 years. Results: The results show that static balance is more complex at an older age, greater standing height, and with eyes closed (p < 0.001). Regarding the center of pressure (COP), its variability was greater in girls owing to a lower Total Force (TF) at the time of the test (p < 0.05). Parallel observation with the Kinovea software has made it possible to elaborate a scale from 1 to 10 points for integration into an open-access web application (IMEP) to assess static and dynamic balance. Conclusions: The creation of an ad hoc application for primary school teachers and students has been possible by using validated devices obtaining a rating scale, which facilitate the monitoring of students’ functional evolution and offers the possibility of scheduling physical education sessions with a preventive approach as well as a focus on improving physical condition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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18 pages, 1675 KiB  
Article
Learning to Cycle: Why Is the Balance Bike More Efficient than the Bicycle with Training Wheels? The Lyapunov’s Answer
by Cristiana Mercê, Keith Davids, Rita Cordovil, David Catela and Marco Branco
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(4), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9040266 - 10 Dec 2024
Viewed by 915
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Riding a bicycle is a foundational movement skill that can be acquired at an early age. The most common training bicycle has lateral training wheels (BTW). However, the balance bike (BB) has consistently been regarded as more efficient, as children require less [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Riding a bicycle is a foundational movement skill that can be acquired at an early age. The most common training bicycle has lateral training wheels (BTW). However, the balance bike (BB) has consistently been regarded as more efficient, as children require less time on this bike to successfully transition to a traditional bike (TB). The reasons for this greater efficiency remain unclear, but it is hypothesized that it is due to the immediate balancing requirements for learners. This study aimed to investigate the reasons why the BB is more efficient than the BTW for learning to cycle on a TB. Methods: We compared the variability of the child–bicycle system throughout the learning process with these two types of training bicycles and after transitioning to the TB. Data were collected during the Learning to Cycle Program, with 23 children (6.00 ± 1.2 years old) included. Participants were divided into two experimental training groups, BB (N = 12) and BTW (N = 11). The angular velocity data of the child–bicycle system were collected by four inertial measurement sensors (IMUs), located on the child’s vertex and T2 and the bicycle frame and handlebar, in three time phases: (i) before practice sessions, (ii) immediately after practice sessions, and (iii), two months after practice sessions with the TB. The largest Lyapunov exponents were calculated to assess movement variability. Conclusions: Results supported the hypothesis that the BB affords greater functional variability during practice sessions compared to the BTW, affording more functionally adaptive responses in the learning transition to using a TB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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10 pages, 759 KiB  
Article
Is Countermovement Jump an Indirect Marker of Neuromuscular Mechanism? Relationship with Isometric Knee Extension Test
by Esteban Aedo-Muñoz, Jorge Pérez-Contreras, Alejandro Bustamante-Garrido, David Arriagada-Tarifeño, Jorge Cancino-Jiménez, Manuel Retamal-Espinoza, Rodrigo Argothy-Buchelli, Ciro Brito and Pablo Merino-Muñoz
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(4), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9040242 - 18 Nov 2024
Viewed by 959
Abstract
Several studies have shown that force application is influenced by different neuromuscular mechanisms depending on the time of force application analysis in isometric knee extension test (IKE), and a countermovement jump (CMJ) has contributions from knee extension, so some CMJ variables could be [...] Read more.
Several studies have shown that force application is influenced by different neuromuscular mechanisms depending on the time of force application analysis in isometric knee extension test (IKE), and a countermovement jump (CMJ) has contributions from knee extension, so some CMJ variables could be indicators of such mechanisms. Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the level of relationship of variables of IKE and bilateral CMJ tests. Methods: Male college soccer players (n = 25; corporal mass = 72 ± 8 kg; height = 171 ± 5 cm; age = 22 ± 2 years) performed the IKE at two angles (60° and 75°) on an isokinetic machine and the CMJ on two uniaxial force platforms. To determine the level of relationship, Pearson’s correlation coefficient was analyzed between the test variables. Results: Trivial to moderate correlations (r = −0.45 to 0.62; p < 0.05) were found between CMJ variables and IKE in both knee angles (60° and 75°); Conclusions: The variables of IKE have a trivial to moderate correlation with the variables of CMJ, so the variables of CMJ could not be considered interchangeably with those of IKE and therefore considered indicators of neuromuscular mechanisms isolated from the knee extensor function. Longitudinal design (fatigue or training protocols) should be realized to corroborate these results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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11 pages, 581 KiB  
Article
Handgrip Strength and Upper Limb Anthropometric Characteristics among Latin American Female Volleyball Players
by María Alejandra Camacho-Villa, Jhon Hurtado-Alcoser, Andrés Santiago Jerez, Juan Carlos Saavedra, Erika Tatiana Paredes Prada, Jeimy Andrea Merchán, Fernando Millan-Domingo, Carlos Silva-Polanía and Adrián De la Rosa
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(3), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030168 - 18 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1470
Abstract
Background: In volleyball, the upper limb dimensions and grip strength greatly influence offensive and defensive movements during a match. However, the relationship between these parameters remains underexplored in elite female volleyball players. Objective: This study aimed to contrast the upper limb anthropometric characteristics [...] Read more.
Background: In volleyball, the upper limb dimensions and grip strength greatly influence offensive and defensive movements during a match. However, the relationship between these parameters remains underexplored in elite female volleyball players. Objective: This study aimed to contrast the upper limb anthropometric characteristics and handgrip strength (HGS) of female elite volleyball players against a control group. Methods: Selected upper limb anthropometric parameters and maximal HGS of 42 female volleyball players and 40 non-athletes were measured. Results: Players exhibited higher values in almost all variables studied than non-athletes. The differences were statistically significant (p < 0.001) except for body mass index and elbow and wrist diameters. Players showed a moderate correlation between dominant HGS and hand parameters (length r = 0.43 and breadth r = 0.63; p < 0.05). Weak correlations were identified with height, upper arm length, elbow diameter, and hand shape index (r = 0.32 to 0.38; p < 0.05). In the non-dominant hand, a moderate correlation with handbreadth (r = 0.55, p ≤ 0.01) and weak correlations with upper arm length, wrist diameter, hand length, and hand shape index (r = 0.32 to 0.35; p ≤ 0.05) was found. Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of the upper limb anthropometric parameters as predictors of HGS and their utility in athlete selection. Future research should investigate biomechanical factors influencing HGS and injury prevention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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9 pages, 811 KiB  
Article
Insights on the Selection of the Coefficient of Variation to Assess Speed Fluctuation in Swimming
by Mafalda P. Pinto, Daniel A. Marinho, Henrique P. Neiva, Tiago M. Barbosa and Jorge E. Morais
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(3), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030129 - 25 Jul 2024
Viewed by 979
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare swimming speed and speed fluctuations in front crawl between swimmers of different performance levels using discrete variables against statistical parametric mapping (SPM). The sample was composed of 34 male swimmers divided into three groups: (i) [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to compare swimming speed and speed fluctuations in front crawl between swimmers of different performance levels using discrete variables against statistical parametric mapping (SPM). The sample was composed of 34 male swimmers divided into three groups: (i) group #1—recreational swimmers; (ii) group #2—competitive swimmers aged 12 to 14 years; (iii) group #3—competitive swimmers aged 15 to 17 years. Swimming speed and speed fluctuations (calculated based on four different conditions) were used as discrete variables. Using these discrete variables, ANOVA one-way was used to verify differences between groups, and Bonferroni post-hoc correction for pairwise comparison whenever suitable. SPM (with similar statistical tests) was used to analyze the swimming speed and fluctuation as a continuous variable. Overall, both statistical approaches revealed significant differences (p < 0.001) in swimming speed and speed fluctuations. However, as discrete variables (in four different conditions), the speed fluctuation was not able to detect significant differences between groups #2 and #3. Conversely, SPM was more sensitive and did yield significant differences between these two groups. Therefore, researchers and coaches should be aware that the speed fluctuation as a discrete variable may not identify differences in swimming speed fluctuations when the average value between groups is marginal. On the other hand, SPM was more sensitive in analyzing all groups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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11 pages, 510 KiB  
Article
Anthropometric and Somatotype Profile of Elite Finn Class Sailors
by Luka Pezelj, Boris Milavić and Mirjana Milić
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(3), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030121 - 5 Jul 2024
Viewed by 981
Abstract
Determining the reference base of anthropometric parameters on a sample of elite athletes is one of the foundations of further research and forming a clearer picture of each sport and sports discipline. In this study, the aim was to describe the anthropometric and [...] Read more.
Determining the reference base of anthropometric parameters on a sample of elite athletes is one of the foundations of further research and forming a clearer picture of each sport and sports discipline. In this study, the aim was to describe the anthropometric and somatotype profiles of elite Finn class sailors and to determine the differences in the measured parameters between sailors at different levels of general competitive success. The subject sample included 57 Finn class sailors who competed at the open Finn European Championship. A set of 25 anthropometric variables were applied. The sailors were divided into three groups according to their level of general competitive success using World Sailing Rankings. Finn sailors had higher average values in almost all morphological characteristics when compared to the sailors in other Olympic classes. Considering the average values of somatotype categories, we determined that Finn sailors fit the endomorphic mesomorph somatotype category (3.94 ± 1.19 − 5.50 ± 1.19 − 1.63 ± 0.74). Significant differences were observed between more-successful, medium, and less-successful sailors in the variables of age, body mass, muscle mass, arm muscle mass, and endomorphy rating. These results indicate the possibility of selection processes and/or adaptation to sailing occurring in the Finn class. The anthropometric characteristics of Finn sailors compared to sailors in Olympic classes further “support” the Finn class being called the “heavy dinghy” male class. This study on anthropometric parameters, determined via a sample of top Finn sailors, may be of great help to coaches and young sailors when deciding on the selection of an adult sailing class. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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13 pages, 780 KiB  
Article
Post-Arthroplasty Spatiotemporal Gait Parameters in Patients with Hip Osteoarthritis or Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip: An Observational Study
by Sophia Stasi, Georgios Papagiannis, Athanasios Triantafyllou, Panayiotis Papagelopoulos and Panagiotis Koulouvaris
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(3), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030110 - 25 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1887
Abstract
Total hip arthroplasty (THA) is a preferred treatment for primary osteoarthritis (OA) or secondary degenerative arthropathy due to developmental hip dysplasia (DDH). Gait analysis is considered a gold standard for evaluating post-arthroplasty walking patterns. This study compared post-THA spatiotemporal gait parameters (SGPs) between [...] Read more.
Total hip arthroplasty (THA) is a preferred treatment for primary osteoarthritis (OA) or secondary degenerative arthropathy due to developmental hip dysplasia (DDH). Gait analysis is considered a gold standard for evaluating post-arthroplasty walking patterns. This study compared post-THA spatiotemporal gait parameters (SGPs) between OA and DDH patients and explored correlations with demographic and clinical variables. Thirty patients (15 per group) were recorded during gait and their SGPs were analyzed. Functionality was evaluated with the Oxford Hip Score (OHS). The OA patients were significantly older than DDH patients (p < 0.005). Significant and moderate to strong were the correlations between SGPs, age, and four items of the OHS concerning hip pain and activities of daily life (0.31 < Pearson’s r < 0.51 all p < 0.05). Following THA, both groups exhibited similar levels of the examined gait parameters. Post-arthroplasty SGPs and OHS correlations indicate limitations in certain activities. Given the absence of pre-operative data and the correlation between age and SGPs and OHS, ANCOVA testing revealed that age adjusts OHS and SGP values, while pre-operative diagnosis has no main effect. These findings indicate that hip OA or DDH do not affect postoperative SGPs and patients’ functionality. Future studies should examine both kinematic and kinetic data to better evaluate the post-THA gait patterns of OA and DDH patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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14 pages, 2717 KiB  
Article
Upper-Limb Muscle Fatigability in Para-Athletes Quantified as the Rate of Force Development in Rapid Contractions of Submaximal Amplitude
by Gennaro Boccia, Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Luca Beratto, Ilaria Peluso, Roberto Ferrara, Diego Munzi, Elisabetta Toti, Anna Raguzzini, Tommaso Sciarra and Alberto Rainoldi
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9020108 - 20 Jun 2024
Viewed by 1112
Abstract
This study aimed to compare neuromuscular fatigability of the elbow flexors and extensors between athletes with amputation (AMP) and athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI) for maximum voluntary force (MVF) and rate of force development (RFD). We recruited 20 para-athletes among those participating [...] Read more.
This study aimed to compare neuromuscular fatigability of the elbow flexors and extensors between athletes with amputation (AMP) and athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI) for maximum voluntary force (MVF) and rate of force development (RFD). We recruited 20 para-athletes among those participating at two training camps (2022) for Italian Paralympic veterans. Ten athletes with SCI (two with tetraplegia and eight with paraplegia) were compared to 10 athletes with amputation (above the knee, N = 3; below the knee, N = 6; forearm, N = 1). We quantified MVF, RFD at 50, 100, and 150 ms, and maximal RFD (RFDpeak) of elbow flexors and extensors before and after an incremental arm cranking to voluntary fatigue. We also measured the RFD scaling factor (RFD-SF), which is the linear relationship between peak force and peak RFD quantified in a series of ballistic contractions of submaximal amplitude. SCI showed lower levels of MVF and RFD in both muscle groups (all p values ≤ 0.045). Despite this, the decrease in MVF (Cohen’s d = 0.425, p < 0.001) and RFDpeak (d = 0.424, p = 0.003) after the incremental test did not show any difference between pathological conditions. Overall, RFD at 50 ms showed the greatest decrease (d = 0.741, p < 0.001), RFD at 100 ms showed a small decrease (d = 0.382, p = 0.020), and RFD at 150 ms did not decrease (p = 0.272). The RFD-SF decreased more in SCI than AMP (p < 0.0001). Muscle fatigability impacted not only maximal force expressions but also the quickness of ballistic contractions of submaximal amplitude, particularly in SCI. This may affect various sports and daily living activities of wheelchair users. Early RFD (i.e., ≤50 ms) was notably affected by muscle fatigability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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11 pages, 1148 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of Bioelectric and Biomechanical EMG Normalization Techniques in Healthy Older and Young Adults during Walking Gait
by Drew Commandeur, Marc Klimstra, Ryan Brodie and Sandra Hundza
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(2), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9020090 - 22 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1466
Abstract
This study compares biomechanical and bioelectric electromyography (EMG) normalization techniques across disparate age cohorts during walking to assess the impact of normalization methods on the functional interpretation of EMG data. The biomechanical method involved scaling EMG to a target absolute torque (EMGTS [...] Read more.
This study compares biomechanical and bioelectric electromyography (EMG) normalization techniques across disparate age cohorts during walking to assess the impact of normalization methods on the functional interpretation of EMG data. The biomechanical method involved scaling EMG to a target absolute torque (EMGTS) from a joint-specific task and the chosen bioelectric methods were peak and mean normalization taken from the EMG signal during gait, referred to as dynamic mean and dynamic peak normalization (EMGMean and EMGPeak). The effects of normalization on EMG amplitude, activation pattern, and inter-subject variability were compared between disparate cohorts, including OLD (76.6 yrs N = 12) and YOUNG (26.6 yrs N = 12), in five lower-limb muscles. EMGPeak normalization resulted in differences between YOUNG and OLD cohorts in Biceps Femoris (BF) and Medial Gastrocnemius (MG) that were not observed with EMGMean or EMGTS normalization. EMGPeak and EMGMean normalization also demonstrated interactions between age and the phase of gait in BF that were not seen with EMGTS. Correlations showed that activation patterns across the gait cycle were similar between all methods for both age groups and the coefficient of variation comparisons found that EMGTS produced the greatest inter-subject variability. We have shown that the normalization technique can influence the interpretation of findings when comparing disparate populations, highlighting the need to carefully interpret functional differences in EMG between disparate cohorts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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8 pages, 1010 KiB  
Brief Report
A Comparison of Paddle Forces between Whitewater and Flatwater Training in C1 Canoe Slalom
by James M. Wakeling, Stanislava Smiešková, Matej Vajda and Jan Busta
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(3), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030167 - 17 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1074
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Becoming an elite canoe slalom athlete requires thousands of hours of training, spread over many years. It is difficult to assess the correct balance between flatwater and whitewater training because differences in the paddle forces on these terrains are not known. The [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Becoming an elite canoe slalom athlete requires thousands of hours of training, spread over many years. It is difficult to assess the correct balance between flatwater and whitewater training because differences in the paddle forces on these terrains are not known. The aim of this study was to describe paddle forces during canoe slalom training on flatwater and whitewater courses for the C1 canoe category. Methods: Paddle forces for twenty C1 canoe slalom athletes were quantified during all-out figure-of-eight tests on a flatwater course and during race simulations on a whitewater course. Paddle forces were measured using strain gauges embedded in the paddle shaft and quantified by their force, impulse, and stroke durations. Results: The mean force during the pull phase of the paddle strokes was not significantly different between the flatwater and whitewater courses; however, the longer pull phase durations led to a greater pull phase impulse when paddling on the whitewater course. Conclusions: This study indicates that training for all-out runs on a whitewater course is more demanding for canoe slalom athletes than performing all-out trials on a flatwater figure-of-eight course. This evidence may help to develop effective training plans that are essential to reach the highest levels of the sport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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7 pages, 2256 KiB  
Brief Report
Changing the Mandibular Position in Rowing: A Brief Report of a World-Class Rower
by Filipa Cardoso, Ricardo Cardoso, Pedro Fonseca, Manoel Rios, João Paulo Vilas-Boas, João C. Pinho, David B. Pyne and Ricardo J. Fernandes
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(3), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030153 - 30 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1380
Abstract
We investigated the acute biophysical responses of changing the mandibular position during a rowing incremental protocol. A World-class 37-year-old male rower performed two 7 × 3 min ergometer rowing trials, once with no intraoral splint (control) and the other with a mandibular forward [...] Read more.
We investigated the acute biophysical responses of changing the mandibular position during a rowing incremental protocol. A World-class 37-year-old male rower performed two 7 × 3 min ergometer rowing trials, once with no intraoral splint (control) and the other with a mandibular forward repositioning splint (splint condition). Ventilatory, kinematics and body electromyography were evaluated and compared between trials (paired samples t-test, p ≤ 0.05). Under the splint condition, oxygen uptake was lower, particularly at higher exercise intensities (67.3 ± 2.3 vs. 70.9 ± 1.5 mL·kg−1·min−1), and ventilation increased during specific rowing protocol steps (1st–4th and 6th). Wearing the splint condition led to changes in rowing technique, including a slower rowing frequency ([18–30] vs. [19–32] cycles·min−1) and a longer propulsive movement ([1.58–1.52] vs. [1.56–1.50] m) than the control condition. The splint condition also had a faster propulsive phase and a prolonged recovery period than the control condition. The splint reduced peak and mean upper body muscle activation, contrasting with an increase in lower body muscle activity, and generated an energetic benefit by reducing exercise cost and increasing rowing economy compared to the control condition. Changing the mandibular position benefited a World-class rower, supporting the potential of wearing an intraoral splint in high-level sports, particularly in rowing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)
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