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Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges
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Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges

A special issue of Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (ISSN 2077-1312). This special issue belongs to the section "Ocean Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 January 2025) | Viewed by 9564

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Tetsuo Yamazaki

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Guest Editor
Department of Marine Systems Engineering, Osaka Metropolitan University, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
Interests: technical and economic evaluation of deep-sea mining; ecosystem modeling of deep-sea floor; strategic R&D planning of economical deep-sea mining
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Sup Hong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Principal Researcher, Ocean and Maritime Digital Technology Research Division, Korea Research Institute of Ships & Ocean Engineering, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
Interests: deep-sea mining technologies; miner mechanics; hydraulic lifting; system integrations
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Rahul Sharma

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Former Chief Scientist, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India
Interests: distribution characteristics of deep-sea mineral resources; environmental assessment of deep-sea mining
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

More than a half century has passed from the first recognition of the potential of deep-sea minerals for future metal sources. At the time, it was considered technologically and economically easier to realize deep-sea mining. Many scientific, technological, and environmental advancements have been made over these 50 years. Nevertheless, no venture has started full-scale mining activity. Because many on-site experiments have been successful in recent years, it seem as if a new era of deep-sea mining is coming soon. However, some technological, economical, and environmental challenges still need to be addressed to realize deep-sea mining. In addition, a strong anxiety over the ecosystem impacts of mining operations in deep-sea areas is arising. In this Special Issue, the current status of deep-sea mining technologies and new challenges are introduced.

Prof. Dr. Tetsuo Yamazaki
Dr. Sup Hong
Dr. Rahul Sharma
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • distribution characteristic of deep-sea mineral resources
  • acoustic characteristics of deep-sea mineral resources
  • geotechnical properties of deep-sea sediments and substrate rocks
  • geotechnical properties of seafloor massive sulfides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts
  • miner propulsive technologies
  • cutting and excavating technologies for miners
  • track control for miners
  • automotive control for miners
  • pump-lifting technologies
  • air-lifting technologies
  • riser pipe dynamics
  • platform and riser dynamics
  • environmental assessments in deep-sea mining
  • economic evaluations in deep-sea mining

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 3877 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation on Hybrid Lifting Operation of Polymetallic Nodules and Rare-Earth Elements-Rich Mud by Air-Lift Pump in Deep Sea around Minamitorishima Island
by Yoshiyuki Shimizu, Masatoshi Sugihara, Koichiro Fujinaga, Kentaro Nakamura and Yasuhiro Kato
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13020267 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 297
Abstract
Polymetallic nodules and REE-rich mud under the seabed of 5500–5700 m water depth around Minamitorishima island are promising and attractive for exploration and development. Following our previous research, numerical analysis was used to investigate the unsteady flow characteristics and the lifting performance of [...] Read more.
Polymetallic nodules and REE-rich mud under the seabed of 5500–5700 m water depth around Minamitorishima island are promising and attractive for exploration and development. Following our previous research, numerical analysis was used to investigate the unsteady flow characteristics and the lifting performance of a commercial production system using an air-lift pump for hybrid lifting, lifting both polymetallic nodules and REE-rich mud. Gas–liquid–solid three-phase flow and gas–liquid two-phase flow in the system were analyzed using the one-dimensional drift–flux model. First, the reliability of the schemes and program was verified by comparing the numerical results with the experimental ones. Next, numerical simulations were conducted, in which the model’s dimensions were related to a commercial production system operated in the deep sea around Minamitorishima island, and the conditions fit the expected production rate. The results revealed the unsteady flow characteristics under the operations, such as start-up, shut-down, feed of polymetallic nodules and REE-rich mud, and those associated with disturbances, such as feed rate fluctuations. We demonstrate that the program and the schemes can simulate the unsteady flow characteristics and the lifting performance of a commercial production system with an air-lift pump well, and they can derive useful information and know-how in advance for the safe and continuous operation of the system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
23 pages, 20317 KiB  
Article
Research on the Unsteady Flow Characteristics of Solid–Liquid Two-Phase Flow in a Deep-Sea Mining Lift Pump and Model Experimental Verification
by Shunjun Hong, Junhong Hu, Pengyun Wei, Haizhong Man, Zihai Yang, Jing Wu and Xiaozhou Hu
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(9), 1611; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12091611 - 10 Sep 2024
Viewed by 891
Abstract
The deep-sea mining lift pump is one of the pivotal components in deep-sea mineral transportation systems and its internal flow is very complex; consequently, unraveling its unsteady flow behavior pattern holds immense practical value. This study adopts numerical methods to analyze the time-averaged [...] Read more.
The deep-sea mining lift pump is one of the pivotal components in deep-sea mineral transportation systems and its internal flow is very complex; consequently, unraveling its unsteady flow behavior pattern holds immense practical value. This study adopts numerical methods to analyze the time-averaged distribution characteristics of the internal flow field in mining lift pumps, as well as the flow field’s pulsation intensity distribution characteristics, the vortex’s spatiotemporal evolution process in both moving and static cascades, and the time- and frequency-domain pulsation characteristics of internal pressure in each flow passage component under four different flow conditions are also investigated. The hydraulic properties of mining lift pumps under these four different conditions are also evaluated, and the outcomes are benchmarked against those of numerical predictions. Our findings reveal that the interplay between impeller blades and guide vanes significantly influences the pump’s flow characteristics, with the pump’s unsteady flow influencing its hydraulic properties. Experimental validation of this system confirms that the pump under study is in line with design specifications in terms of hydraulic properties. The method validation test on the prototype pump shows that the SST k-ω model is capable of successfully forecasting instability in the flow features of deep-sea mining lift pumps. These results will serve as a theoretical reference for regulating the flow state inside deep-sea mining lift pumps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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21 pages, 18067 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Fluid Suction Characteristics of Polyhedral Particles in Deep-Sea Hydraulic Collection Method
by Min Jiang, Bingzheng Chen and Kaihui Li
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(9), 1543; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12091543 - 4 Sep 2024
Viewed by 783
Abstract
Deep-sea hydraulic collection is a key technology for seabed mineral resource extraction, offering higher efficiency and environmental protection compared to other collection methods. However, due to their complex characteristics, the suction properties and influencing factors of polyhedral particles in hydraulic suction collection remain [...] Read more.
Deep-sea hydraulic collection is a key technology for seabed mineral resource extraction, offering higher efficiency and environmental protection compared to other collection methods. However, due to their complex characteristics, the suction properties and influencing factors of polyhedral particles in hydraulic suction collection remain elusive. This study utilized dimensionless methods and conducted experiments to analyze the flow characteristics in cone-shaped collection hoods and the distribution of suction force on polyhedral particles, and researched the effect of various parameters, such as Φ, H/R, R/S, and H/dp (referring to the nomenclature given in the last part of this paper), on the suction force coefficients of polyhedral particles based on the suction force coefficients of spheres by acquiring the suction coefficient ratio (kc). The results indicate the following: (1) the presence of suction and coherent vortices in the horizontal positions of 0.1R to 0.2R within the central region, which move with changes in pump suction or cove height, benefiting particle collection; (2) the particle suction force (Fd) decreases with increasing sphericity (Φ), with a more pronounced decline in high-speed flow fields, exhibiting two peaks and one trough in the Fd curve within the hood’s flow field; (3) the kc generally increases with decreasing Φ at the same collection position, showing increasingly stable fluctuations, and kc is sensitive to surrounding flow velocities with a rapid growth trend at higher speed, revealing that the suction coefficient (Cd) of polyhedral particles is significantly larger than that of spherical particles with increasing flow speed in high-speed flow fields; (4) Fd decreases with increasing H/dp, with a noticeable slowdown when H/dp exceeds 3.5. This study reveals the force characteristics and influencing factors of non-spherical coarse particles in hydraulic suction collection flow fields, providing insights for the development of collection technologies and equipment for deep-sea solid mineral resources, particularly irregular coarse particles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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24 pages, 6311 KiB  
Article
Air-Lift Pumping System for Hybrid Mining of Rare-Earth Elements-Rich Mud and Polymetallic Nodules around Minamitorishima Island
by Yoshiyuki Shimizu, Masatoshi Sugihara, Koichiro Fujinaga, Kentaro Nakamura and Yasuhiro Kato
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(9), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12091470 - 23 Aug 2024
Viewed by 910
Abstract
REE-rich mud under the seabed at a 5500–5700 m water depth around Minamitorishima island and polymetallic nodules buried in the deep seabed are very promising and attractive to explore and develop. REEs are critical to develop due to the recent paradigm shift to [...] Read more.
REE-rich mud under the seabed at a 5500–5700 m water depth around Minamitorishima island and polymetallic nodules buried in the deep seabed are very promising and attractive to explore and develop. REEs are critical to develop due to the recent paradigm shift to renewable energies based on green technologies. Numerical analysis using a one-dimensional drift–flux model for gas–liquid–solid three-phase flow and gas–liquid two-phase flow was conducted to examine the characteristics of an air-lift pumping system for mining these mineral resources. Empirical equations of REE-rich mud and the physical properties of polymetallic nodules around Minamitorishima island were utilized in the analysis. As a result, the characteristics, i.e., the performance of the system, were clarified in three cases: REE-rich mud, polymetallic nodules, and both. The time transient, i.e., the unsteady characteristics of the system, was also shown, such as the start-up and feeding slurry with REE-rich mud and polymetallic nodules. The findings from the unsteady characteristics will be useful in considering the operation of a real project or a commercial system in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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12 pages, 4824 KiB  
Article
An Experimental Study of Pulp-Lift Characteristics Using a High-Viscous Fluid Simulating Deep Muddy Seawater
by Sakai Onishi, Yurie Itagaki, Naoki Nakatani, Kyara Ohara, Hiroyuki Katayama and Tetsuo Yamazaki
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(8), 1448; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12081448 - 21 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 613
Abstract
Rare-earth mud and manganese nodules coexist on the seafloor around Minamitorishima Island. To investigate the feasibility of a pulp-lift system that can ensure economic efficiency by pumping manganese using rare-earth mud as the working fluid, we conducted pulp-lift experiments at a head of [...] Read more.
Rare-earth mud and manganese nodules coexist on the seafloor around Minamitorishima Island. To investigate the feasibility of a pulp-lift system that can ensure economic efficiency by pumping manganese using rare-earth mud as the working fluid, we conducted pulp-lift experiments at a head of 5.0 m using a squeeze pump for mortar pumping. In the study, we used carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) as the working fluid, which is a pseudo-plastic fluid like deep muddy seawater. We investigated the effects of the viscosity of the working fluid and the pump pulsation characteristics on lifting. The results revealed that the drag force acting on the pumped ore increased as the fluid became more viscous and the pulsation period became higher, while the reverse flow rate increased due to the negative pulsation pressure. This suggests that there is an optimum value for the viscosity of the working fluid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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29 pages, 24157 KiB  
Article
Research on the Characteristics of Solid–Liquid Two-Phase Flow in the Lifting Pipeline of Seabed Mining
by Tianyu Su, Shengtao Chen and Hanhan Yuan
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(8), 1409; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12081409 - 16 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1198
Abstract
Vertical pipes are a significant component of deep-sea mining hydraulic lifting systems, frequently stretching up to thousands of meters. This article employs the coupling approach of computational fluid dynamics for the liquid phase and the Discrete Element Method for the particle phase (CFD-DEM) [...] Read more.
Vertical pipes are a significant component of deep-sea mining hydraulic lifting systems, frequently stretching up to thousands of meters. This article employs the coupling approach of computational fluid dynamics for the liquid phase and the Discrete Element Method for the particle phase (CFD-DEM) to simulate solid–liquid two-phase flow in a vertical pipeline, utilizing a scaled vertical lift pipeline model as the study object. By adjusting the conveying parameters and structural factors, the lifting performance of particles and the two-phase flow characteristics under various operating circumstances are examined, and the veracity of the simulation is validated by experimental techniques. The findings reveal that the lifting of particles is impacted by both the conveying parameters and the structural factors. The increase in flow rate can effectively improve the distribution of particles in the pipeline and enhance the followability of particles. The disturbance created by the collision and mixing of particles induced by the change in particle concentration has a tremendous impact on the velocity distribution of the two-phase flow in the pipeline and the pressure distribution of the pipe wall. In addition, there is an ideal lifting flow corresponding to various particle concentrations, which may improve the particle dispersion. The outcome of this research has a certain reference relevance for the selection of the parameters of deep-sea mining lifting systems in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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Review

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29 pages, 14870 KiB  
Review
A Review on Underwater Collection and Transportation Equipment of Polymetallic Nodules in Deep-Sea Mining
by Xiuzhan Zhang, Yuhang Zuo, Jiakang Wei, Fei Sha, Zhenqin Yuan, Xuelin Liu, Mingshuai Xi and Jingze Xu
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(5), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12050788 - 8 May 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2925
Abstract
In response to the anticipated scarcity of terrestrial land resources in the coming years, the acquisition of marine mineral resources is imperative. This paper mainly summarizes the development of underwater collection and transportation equipment of polymetallic nodules in deep-sea mining. Firstly, the collection [...] Read more.
In response to the anticipated scarcity of terrestrial land resources in the coming years, the acquisition of marine mineral resources is imperative. This paper mainly summarizes the development of underwater collection and transportation equipment of polymetallic nodules in deep-sea mining. Firstly, the collection equipment is reviewed. The deep-sea mining vehicle (DSMV), as the key equipment of the collection equipment, mainly includes the collecting device and the walking device. The micro and macro properties of sediments have a great influence on the collection efficiency of mining vehicles. For the collecting device, the optimization of the jet head structure and the solid–liquid two-phase flow transport of the hose are discussed. The structure of the walking device restricts mining efficiency. The optimization of the geometric structure is studied, and the geometric passability and lightweight design of the walking device are discussed. Secondly, the core of transportation equipment is the lifting device composed of a riser and lifting pump. In order to explore the key factors affecting mineral transport, the lifting device is summarized, and the design optimization of the lifting pump and the factors affecting the stability of the riser are discussed. Then, the relationship between each device is discussed, and the overall coupling of the device is summarized. Finally, the existing problems and future research focus are summarized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Sea Mining Technologies: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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