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Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins
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Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins

A special issue of Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X). This special issue belongs to the section "Fungal Genomics, Genetics and Molecular Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2024) | Viewed by 6754

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Zhenhong Zhuang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins of Fujian Province, Key Laboratory of Biopesticide and Chemical Biology of Education Ministry, Proteomic Research Center, and School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
Interests: the regulatory mechanism of morphogenesis; secondary metabolism and pathogenicity, especially in the field of epigenetics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There are an estimated 1.5 million species of fungi, of which toxigenic fungi including plant pathogens, fungi that thrive and generate mycotoxins on cellular senescence or stressed plants, fungi that invade crops early and make feedstock more vulnerable to contamination after harvesting and fungi existing in decaying plants or soil debris that arise on emerging kernels. Toxigenic fungi are identified on the basis of their colony morphology, species-specific PCR primers targeting ITS regions and the amplification of cluster genes involved in mycotoxin synthesis pathways. Toxigenic fungi, particularly those from the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium, accumulate secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins during target infection. A huge range of toxic effects of mycotoxins are reported in people exposed to cereals contaminated with mycotoxins, including mild gastrointestinal infection, growth retardation, immunosuppression, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, etc. Therefore, it is essential to diagnose the toxigenic fungi and minimize mycotoxin levels.

In recent years, the development of molecular biology tools has led to the development of faster, more reliable diagnostic techniques for toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins, providing valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying diagnosis and biocontrol. The aim of this Special Issue is to characterize the morphogenesis and pathogenicity of toxigenic fungi, biosynthesis of mycotoxins and toxic effects of mycotoxins through comprehensive reviews, original studies and novel perspectives.

Prof. Dr. Zhenhong Zhuang
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • toxigenic fungi
  • morphogenesis
  • pathogenicity
  • mycotoxins

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3337 KiB  
Article
Elucidating the Fundamental Process of Methyl-(5hydroxymethyl) Furan-2-Carboxylate Toxin Biosynthesis in Curvularia lunata Causing Maize Leaf Spot
by Zhixiang Lu, Bo Lang, Shaoqing Wang, Hongyi Liu, Xinhua Wang and Jie Chen
J. Fungi 2024, 10(10), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10100688 - 30 Sep 2024
Viewed by 731
Abstract
Maize leaf spot, which is caused by Curvularia lunata (Wakkre) Boedijn, was epidemic in the maize-growing regions of northeastern and northern China in the mid-1990s, where it led to large yield losses. Since then, the epidemic has evolved into a kind of common [...] Read more.
Maize leaf spot, which is caused by Curvularia lunata (Wakkre) Boedijn, was epidemic in the maize-growing regions of northeastern and northern China in the mid-1990s, where it led to large yield losses. Since then, the epidemic has evolved into a kind of common disease. In recent years, however, a tendency of becoming an epidemic disease again has been observed in some areas in China due to significant changes in climate, farming, systems and crop varieties. The significance of methyl-(5hydroxymethyl) furan-2-carboxylate (M5HF2C) as a nonspecific host toxin in causing maize leaf spot disease has been demonstrated in previous research. However, the key enzymes involved in M5HF2C toxin synthesis remain unclear. In our study, we demonstrate that the synthesis of M5HF2C toxin starts from a precursor substrate in the pathogen, furfural, which is then catalytically dehydrogenated into furoic acid via an alcohol dehydrogenase (CLADH6). The furoic acid was further confirmed as one of the raw materials for the biosynthesis of M5HF2C toxin based on deletion mutants of the alcohol dehydrogenase gene (Cladh6) in C. lunata, which had reduced M5HF2C toxin-producing ability; however, this ability could be restored in all deletion mutants through complementation with furoic acid, thereby confirming that furoic acid is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of M5HF2C toxin. In summary, the biosynthesis process of M5HF2C toxin in C. lunata involves three transformation steps: (1) from xylose to furfural; (2) then from furfural to furoic acid; and (3) eventually from furoic acid to M5HF2C toxin. Our research findings provide new clues in elucidating the major steps in the process of M5HF2C toxin biosynthesis in C. lunata. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins)
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19 pages, 6997 KiB  
Article
Comparative Genome Analysis of Japanese Field-Isolated Aspergillus for Aflatoxin Productivity and Non-Productivity
by Tomohiro Furukawa, Kanae Sakai, Tadahiro Suzuki, Takumi Tanaka, Masayo Kushiro and Ken-Ichi Kusumoto
J. Fungi 2024, 10(7), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10070459 - 28 Jun 2024
Viewed by 750
Abstract
Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin, a carcinogenic fungal toxin that poses a threat to the agricultural and food industries. There is a concern that the distribution of aflatoxin-producing A. flavus is expanding in Japan due to climate change, and it is necessary to understand [...] Read more.
Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin, a carcinogenic fungal toxin that poses a threat to the agricultural and food industries. There is a concern that the distribution of aflatoxin-producing A. flavus is expanding in Japan due to climate change, and it is necessary to understand what types of strains inhabit. In this study, we sequenced the genomes of four Aspergillus strains isolated from agricultural fields in the Ibaraki prefecture of Japan and identified their genetic variants. Phylogenetic analysis based on single-nucleotide variants revealed that the two aflatoxin-producing strains were closely related to A. flavus NRRL3357, whereas the two non-producing strains were closely related to the RIB40 strain of Aspergillus oryzae, a fungus widely used in the Japanese fermentation industry. A detailed analysis of the variants in the aflatoxin biosynthetic gene cluster showed that the two aflatoxin-producing strains belonged to different morphotype lineages. RT-qPCR results indicated that the expression of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes was consistent with aflatoxin production in the two aflatoxin-producing strains, whereas the two non-producing strains expressed most of the aflatoxin biosynthetic genes, unlike common knowledge in A. oryzae, suggesting that the lack of aflatoxin production was attributed to genes outside of the aflatoxin biosynthetic gene cluster in these strains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins)
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21 pages, 4336 KiB  
Article
Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) Gut Bacteria Inhibit Growth of Aspergillus flavus and Degrade Aflatoxin B1
by Haneen Abdullah Al-Saadi, Abdullah Mohammed Al-Sadi, Ali Al-Wahaibi, Ali Al-Raeesi, Mohamed Al-Kindi, Sathish Babu Soundra Pandian, Majida Mohammed Ali Al-Harrasi, Issa Hashil Al-Mahmooli and Rethinasamy Velazhahan
J. Fungi 2024, 10(6), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10060377 - 24 May 2024
Viewed by 1138
Abstract
In this study, bacteria residing in the gut of the rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeding on aflatoxin-contaminated corn kernels were isolated and evaluated for their ability to suppress Aspergillus flavus and to remove/degrade aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Four morphologically distinct [...] Read more.
In this study, bacteria residing in the gut of the rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeding on aflatoxin-contaminated corn kernels were isolated and evaluated for their ability to suppress Aspergillus flavus and to remove/degrade aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Four morphologically distinct S. oryzae gut-associated bacterial isolates were isolated and identified as Bacillus subtilis (RWGB1), Bacillus oceanisediminis (RWGB2), Bacillus firmus (RWGB3), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (RWGB4) based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. These bacterial isolates inhibited A. flavus growth in the dual culture assay and induced morphological deformities in the fungal hyphae, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. All four bacterial isolates were capable of removing AFB1 from the nutrient broth medium. In addition, culture supernatants of these bacterial isolates degraded AFB1, and the degradation of toxin molecules was confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The bacterial isolates, B. subtilis RWGB1, B. oceanisediminis RWGB2, and P. aeruginosa RWGB4, were capable of producing antifungal volatile organic compounds that inhibited A. flavus growth. These results suggest that the bacterial isolates from S. oryzae gut have the potential to bind and/or degrade AFB1. Further research on their application in the food and feed industries could enhance the safety of food and feed production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins)
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18 pages, 4551 KiB  
Article
The Response of Naturally Based Coatings and Citrus Fungicides to the Development of Four Postharvest Fungi
by Lizette Serrano-Molina, Mónica Hernández-López, Dolores Azucena Salazar-Piña, Silvia Bautista-Baños and Margarita de Lorena Ramos-García
J. Fungi 2024, 10(5), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10050309 - 24 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1114
Abstract
The tomato (Licopersicon esculentum Mill.) is considered to be one of the products with the highest demand due to its nutritional value; however, it is susceptible to infection by fungi during its pre- and postharvest stages. In this research, three commercial products [...] Read more.
The tomato (Licopersicon esculentum Mill.) is considered to be one of the products with the highest demand due to its nutritional value; however, it is susceptible to infection by fungi during its pre- and postharvest stages. In this research, three commercial products (1% Citrocover, 1% Citro 80, and 0.002% Microdyn) and two coatings based on 1.0% chitosan/0.1% lime or 0.1% orange essential oils were evaluated in vitro and on Saladette tomatoes that were previously inoculated with four postharvest fungi. The application of the commercial citrus-based product Citrocover was highly effective in reducing the in vitro development of Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium oxysporum, and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, but not Rhizopus stolonifer. The sanitizer Microdyn promoted infections with most fungi. Citrus-based products were effective in reducing infections with A. flavus in the tomatoes during storage. Overall, mycotoxin production was very low for all treatments. The use of commercial citrus-based products and coatings did not alter the weight loss, firmness, or total soluble solid contents of the treated tomatoes. The changes observed were, rather, associated with the normal ripening process of Saladette tomatoes. The commercial citrus-based products satisfactorily controlled the in vitro growth of the fungi Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium oxysporum, and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins)
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16 pages, 4565 KiB  
Article
Activation of Ustilaginoidin Biosynthesis Gene uvpks1 in Villosiclava virens Albino Strain LN02 Influences Development, Stress Responses, and Inhibition of Rice Seed Germination
by Mengyao Xue, Xuwen Hou, Gan Gu, Jie Dong, Yonglin Yang, Xiaoqian Pan, Xuan Zhang, Dan Xu, Daowan Lai and Ligang Zhou
J. Fungi 2024, 10(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10010031 - 31 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1352
Abstract
Villosiclava virens (anamorph: Ustilaginoidea virens) is the pathogen of rice false smut (RFS), which is a destructive rice fungal disease. The albino strain LN02 is a natural white-phenotype mutant of V. virens due to its incapability to produce toxic ustilaginoidins. In this [...] Read more.
Villosiclava virens (anamorph: Ustilaginoidea virens) is the pathogen of rice false smut (RFS), which is a destructive rice fungal disease. The albino strain LN02 is a natural white-phenotype mutant of V. virens due to its incapability to produce toxic ustilaginoidins. In this study, three strains including the normal strain P1, albino strain LN02, and complemented strain uvpks1C-1 of the LN02 strain were employed to investigate the activation of the ustilaginoidin biosynthesis gene uvpks1 in the albino strain LN02 to influence sporulation, conidia germination, pigment production, stress responses, and the inhibition of rice seed germination. The activation of the ustilaginoidin biosynthesis gene uvpks1 increased fungal tolerances to NaCl-induced osmotic stress, Congo-red-induced cell wall stress, SDS-induced cell membrane stress, and H2O2-induced oxidative stress. The activation of uvpks1 also increased sporulation, conidia germination, pigment production, and the inhibition of rice seed germination. In addition, the activation of uvpks1 was able to increase the mycelial growth of the V. virens albino strain LN02 at 23 °C and a pH from 5.5 to 7.5. The findings help in understanding the effects of the activation of uvpks1 in albino strain LN02 on development, pigment production, stress responses, and the inhibition of rice seed germination by controlling ustilaginoidin biosynthesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins)
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Review

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30 pages, 454 KiB  
Review
Involvement of LaeA and Velvet Proteins in Regulating the Production of Mycotoxins and Other Fungal Secondary Metabolites
by Xuwen Hou, Liyao Liu, Dan Xu, Daowan Lai and Ligang Zhou
J. Fungi 2024, 10(8), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10080561 - 8 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1010
Abstract
Fungi are rich sources of secondary metabolites of agrochemical, pharmaceutical, and food importance, such as mycotoxins, antibiotics, and antitumor agents. Secondary metabolites play vital roles in fungal pathogenesis, growth and development, oxidative status modulation, and adaptation/resistance to various environmental stresses. LaeA contains an [...] Read more.
Fungi are rich sources of secondary metabolites of agrochemical, pharmaceutical, and food importance, such as mycotoxins, antibiotics, and antitumor agents. Secondary metabolites play vital roles in fungal pathogenesis, growth and development, oxidative status modulation, and adaptation/resistance to various environmental stresses. LaeA contains an S-adenosylmethionine binding site and displays methyltransferase activity. The members of velvet proteins include VeA, VelB, VelC, VelD and VosA for each member with a velvet domain. LaeA and velvet proteins can form multimeric complexes such as VosA-VelB and VelB-VeA-LaeA. They belong to global regulators and are mainly impacted by light. One of their most important functions is to regulate gene expressions that are responsible for secondary metabolite biosynthesis. The aim of this mini-review is to represent the newest cognition of the biosynthetic regulation of mycotoxins and other fungal secondary metabolites by LaeA and velvet proteins. In most cases, LaeA and velvet proteins positively regulate production of fungal secondary metabolites. The regulated fungal species mainly belong to the toxigenic fungi from the genera of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Fusarium, Magnaporthe, Monascus, and Penicillium for the production of mycotoxins. We can control secondary metabolite production to inhibit the production of harmful mycotoxins while promoting the production of useful metabolites by global regulation of LaeA and velvet proteins in fungi. Furthermore, the regulation by LaeA and velvet proteins should be a practical strategy in activating silent biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in fungi to obtain previously undiscovered metabolites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins)
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