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Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II)

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 September 2024) | Viewed by 21180

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Prof. Dr. Rainer J. Hebert

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Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
Interests: rapid solidification; aluminum alloys; amorphous alloys
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Dear Colleagues,

Additive manufacturing has taken academia, government agencies, and academia by storm and for good reasons. Opportunities for applications seem to abound, only to be matched by the challenges that could potentially slow down the transformative opportunities of additive manufacturing. These challenges are manifold but mostly revolve around an archnemesis of all manufacturing—variations in product attributes, often without a clear understanding of causes. To address this critical challenge, increasingly, modeling and simulations are used to identify potential sources for variations in microstructures and properties of additively manufactured parts. Advanced characterization techniques both in operandi and post-built complement modeling and simulation efforts. Significant progress has been made using this diverse set of process analysis methods to identify sources of variations.

This Special Issue highlights the current state of the art in understanding sources and causes of process variations in additive manufacturing using a diverse set of tools. Contributions are sought that cover topics of variations in starting materials and their effects on the additive manufacturing process and part properties, including but not limited to powder pedigree and their effects on the additive manufacturing process and part properties; variations in powder delivery and in case of powder-bed additive manufacturing, powder beds and their variations with powder spreading and ramifications on powder bed melting and solidification. Also of interest are variations in energy source characteristics; variations in build chamber gas flows and gas species or other relevant variations of the additive manufacturing process. Modeling and simulation approaches are relevant, as are experimental studies, the use of sensors, and other diagnostic tools.

We invite full-length papers with original research contributions, review papers, and communications with significant novel research content.

Prof. Dr. Rainer J. Hebert
Guest Editor

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Keywords

powders
additive manufacturing
microstructures and properties
laser or electron beams
design for variation
uncertainty quantification

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Advances in Additive Manufacturing in Materials (6 articles)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

16 pages, 11410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Mössbauer Spectroscopy to Evaluate the Influence of Heat Treatment on the Surface Characteristics of Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel

by Tatiana Ivanova, Michal Kořenek and Miroslav Mashlan

Materials 2024, 17(14), 3494; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17143494 - 15 Jul 2024

Viewed by 690

Abstract

The oxidation behaviour of iron-based 316L stainless steel was investigated in the temperature range of 700 to 1000 °C. The test specimens in the shape of plates were produced by selective laser melting. After fabrication, the samples were sandblasted and then annealed in air for different periods of time (0.5, 2, 8, 32 h). Under the influence of temperature and time, stainless steels tend to form an oxide layer. Scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive analysis, and X-ray diffraction were employed to analyse the composition of this layer. Notably, a thin oxide layer primarily composed of (Fe-Cr) formed on the surface due to temperature effects. In addition, with increasing temperature (up to 1000 °C), the oxide of the main alloying elements, specifically Mn₂(Fe-Cr)O₄, appeared alongside the Fe-Cr oxide. Furthermore, the samples were subjected to conversion X-ray (CXMS) and conversion electron (CEMS) Mössbauer spectroscopy. CXMS revealed a singlet with a decreasing Mössbauer effect based on the surface metal oxide thickness. CEMS revealed the presence of Fe³⁺ in the surface layer (0.3 µm). Moreover, an interesting phenomenon occurred at higher temperature levels due to the inhomogeneously thick surface metal oxide layer and the tangential direction of the Mössbauer radiation towards the electron detector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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17 pages, 4127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Effect of Specimen Size on Elastic Properties of Fused-Filament-Fabrication-Printed Polycarbonate and Thermoplastic Polyurethane

by Charul Chadha, Gabriel Olaivar, Mahmoud A. Mahrous, Albert E. Patterson and Iwona Jasiuk

Materials 2024, 17(11), 2677; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112677 - 1 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1180

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) is often used to create designs inspired by topology optimization and biological structures, yielding unique cross-sectional geometries spanning across scales. However, manufacturing defects intrinsic to AM can affect material properties, limiting the applicability of a uniform material model across diverse cross-sections. To examine this phenomenon, this paper explores the influence of specimen size and layer height on the compressive modulus of polycarbonate (PC) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) specimens fabricated using fused filament fabrication (FFF). Micro-computed tomography imaging and compression testing were conducted on the printed samples. The results indicate that while variations in the modulus were statistically significant due to both layer height and size of the specimen in TPU, variations in PC were only statistically significant due to layer height. The highest elastic modulus was observed at a 0.2 mm layer height for both materials across different sizes. These findings offer valuable insights into design components for FFF, emphasizing the importance of considering mechanical property variations due to feature size, especially in TPU. Furthermore, locations with a higher probability of failure are recommended to be printed closer to the print bed, especially for TPU, because of the lower void volume fraction observed near the heated print bed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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34 pages, 28537 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhancing Quality Control: Image-Based Quantification of Carbides and Defect Remediation in Binder Jetting Additive Manufacturing

by Amit Choudhari, James Elder, Manoj Mugale, Sanoj Karki, Satyavan Digole, Stephen Omeike and Tushar Borkar

Materials 2024, 17(10), 2174; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102174 - 7 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1147

Abstract

While binder jetting (BJ) additive manufacturing (AM) holds considerable promise for industrial applications, defects often compromise part quality. This study addresses these challenges by investigating binding mechanisms and analyzing common defects, proposing tailored solutions to mitigate them. Emphasizing defect identification for effective quality control in BJ-AM, this research offers strategies for in-process rectification and post-process evaluation to elevate part quality. It shows how to successfully process metallic parts with complex geometries while maintaining consistent material properties. Furthermore, the paper explores the microstructure of AISI M2 tool steel, utilizing advanced image processing techniques like digital image analysis and SEM images to evaluate carbide distribution. The results show that M2 tool steel has a high proportion of M₆C carbides, with furnace-cooled samples ranging from ~2.4% to 7.1% and MC carbides from ~0.4% to 9.4%. M₆C carbides ranged from ~2.6% to 3.8% in air-cooled samples, while water-cooled samples peaked at ~8.52%. Sintering conditions also affected shrinkage, with furnace-cooled samples showing the lowest rates (1.7 ± 0.4% to 5 ± 0.4%) and water-cooled samples showing the highest (2 ± 0.4% to 14.1 ± 0.4%). The study recommends real-time defect detection systems with autonomous corrective capabilities to improve the quality and performance of BJ-AM components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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14 pages, 4355 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Fused Deposition Modeling Precision with Serial Communication-Driven Closed-Loop Control and Image Analysis for Fault Diagnosis-Correction

by Saeed Behseresht, Allen Love, Omar Alejandro Valdez Pastrana and Young Ho Park

Materials 2024, 17(7), 1459; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17071459 - 22 Mar 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1185

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) also commonly known as 3D printing is an advanced technique for manufacturing complex three-dimensional (3D) parts by depositing raw material layer by layer. Various sub-categories of additive manufacturing exist including directed energy deposition (DED), powder bed fusion (PBF), and fused deposition modeling (FDM). FDM has gained widespread adoption as a popular method for manufacturing 3D parts, even for heavy-duty industrial applications. However, challenges remain, particularly regarding part quality. Print parameters such as print speed, nozzle temperature, and flow rate can significantly impact the final product’s quality. To address this, implementing a closed-loop quality control system is essential. This system consistently monitors part surface quality during printing and adjusts print parameters upon defect detection. In this study, we propose a simple yet effective image analysis-based closed-loop control system, utilizing serial communication and Python v3.12, a widely accessible software platform. The system’s accuracy and robustness are evaluated, demonstrating its effectiveness in ensuring FDM-printed part quality. Notably, this control system offers superior speed in restoring part quality to normal upon defect detection and is easily implementable on commercially available FDM 3D printers, fostering decentralized quality manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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16 pages, 3327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Powder Bed Thermal Diffusivity Using Laser Flash Three Layer Analysis

by Ummay Habiba and Rainer J. Hebert

Materials 2023, 16(19), 6494; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16196494 - 29 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1532

Abstract

The thermal diffusivity of powder bed plays a crucial role in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufacturing. The mechanical properties of the parts built by LPBF are immensely influenced by the thermal properties of the powder bed. This study aims to measure the thermal diffusivity of metallic powder, nickel-based super alloy Inconel718 (IN718), in LPBF using laser flash three-layered analysis in a DLF1600 instrument, which incorporates a special powder cell to encapsulate the powdered sample. Measurements were performed at different temperatures. The thermal diffusivity of several reference samples was measured for the purpose of validating the test results, and it was compared to published data for identical measures. It was observed that experimental results for powder samples were smaller than the actual thermal diffusivity of the sample. R software analysis was used to analyze test data in order to obtain powder thermal diffusivity values that were close to the actual values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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13 pages, 7848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of Cu Using Graphene-Oxide-Treated Powder

by Simon Tidén, Mamoun Taher, Marie Vennström and Ulf Jansson

Materials 2023, 16(15), 5216; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155216 - 25 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1521

Abstract

Additive manufacturing of Cu is interesting for many applications where high thermal and electric conductivity are required. A problem with printing of Cu with a laser-based process is the high reflectance of the powder for near-infrared wavelengths making it difficult to print components with a high density. In this study, we have investigated laser bed fusion (L-PBF) of Cu using graphene oxide (GO)-coated powder. The powder particles were coated in a simple wet-chemical process using electrostatic attractions between the GO and the powder surface. The coated powder exhibited a reduced reflectivity, which improved the printability and increased the densities from ~90% for uncoated powder to 99.8% using 0.1 wt% GO and a laser power of 500 W. The coated Cu powders showed a tendency for balling using laser powers below 400 W, and increasing the GO concentration from 0.1 to 0.3 wt.% showed an increase in spattering and reduced density. Graphene-like sheet structures could be observed in the printed parts using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Carbon-filled inclusions with sizes ranging from 10–200 nm could also be observed in the printed parts using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The GO treatment yielded parts with higher hardness (75.7 HV) and electrical conductivity (77.8% IACS) compared to the parts printed with reference Cu powder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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15 pages, 7329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crystallographic Texture and Substructural Phenomena in 316 Stainless Steel Printed by Selective Laser Melting

by Ricardo Santamaria, Mobin Salasi, William D. A. Rickard, Kod Pojtanabuntoeng, Garry Leadbeater, Mariano Iannuzzi, Steven M. Reddy and Md Zakaria Quadir

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4289; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124289 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1652

Abstract

There is a fast-growing interest in the use of selective laser melting (SLM) for metal/alloy additive manufacturing. Our current knowledge of SLM-printed 316 stainless steel (SS316) is limited and sometimes appears sporadic, presumably due to the complex interdependent effects of a large number of process variables of the SLM processing. This is reflected in the discrepant findings in the crystallographic textures and microstructures in this investigation compared to those reported in the literature, which also vary among themselves. The as-printed material is macroscopically asymmetric in terms of both structure and crystallographic texture. The <101> and <111> crystallographic directions align parallel with the SLM scanning direction (SD) and build direction (BD), respectively. Likewise, some characteristic low-angle boundary features have been reported to be crystallographic, while this investigation unequivocally proves them to be non-crystallographic, since they always maintain an identical alignment with the SLM laser scanning direction, irrespective of the matrix material’s crystal orientation. There are also 500 ± 200 nm columnar or cellular features, depending on the cross-section, which are generally found all over the sample. These columnar or cellular features are formed with walls made of dense packing of dislocations entangled with Mn-, Si- and O-enriched amorphous inclusions. They remain stable after ASM solution treatments at a temperature of 1050 °C, and therefore, are capable of hindering boundary migration events of recrystallization and grain growth. Thus, the nanoscale structures can be retained at high temperatures. Large 2–4 μm inclusions form during the solution treatment, within which the chemical and phase distribution are heterogeneous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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18 pages, 25253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stress Corrosion Cracking of 316L Stainless Steel Additively Manufactured with Sinter-Based Material Extrusion

by Ricardo Santamaria, Ke Wang, Mobin Salasi, Mariano Iannuzzi, Michael Y. Mendoza and Md Zakaria Quadir

Materials 2023, 16(11), 4006; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16114006 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2447

Abstract

This study investigates the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of type 316L stainless steel (SS316L) produced with sinter-based material extrusion additive manufacturing (AM). Sinter-based material extrusion AM produces SS316L with microstructures and mechanical properties comparable to its wrought counterpart in the annealed condition. However, despite extensive research on SCC of SS316L, little is known about the SCC of sinter-based AM SS316L. This study focuses on the influence of sintered microstructures on SCC initiation and crack-branching susceptibility. Custom-made C-rings were exposed to different stress levels in acidic chloride solutions at various temperatures. Solution-annealed (SA) and cold-drawn (CD) wrought SS316L were also tested to understand the SCC behavior of SS316L better. Results showed that sinter-based AM SS316L was more susceptible to SCC initiation than SA wrought SS316L but more resistant than CD wrought SS316L, as determined by the crack initiation time. Sinter-based AM SS316L showed a noticeably lower tendency for crack-branching than both wrought SS316L counterparts. The investigation was supported by comprehensive pre- and post-test microanalysis using light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and micro-computed tomography. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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20 pages, 7687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Powder Spreading Mechanism in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: Experiments and Computational Approach Using Discrete Element Method

by Ummay Habiba and Rainer J. Hebert

Materials 2023, 16(7), 2824; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16072824 - 1 Apr 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3203

Abstract

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufacturing (AM) has been adopted by various industries as a novel manufacturing technology. Powder spreading is a crucial part of the LPBF AM process that defines the quality of the fabricated objects. In this study, the impacts of various input parameters on the spread of powder density and particle distribution during the powder spreading process are investigated using the DEM (discrete element method) simulation tool. The DEM simulations extend over several powder layers and are used to analyze the powder particle packing density variation in different layers and at different points along the longitudinal spreading direction. Additionally, this research covers experimental measurements of the density of the powder packing and the powder particle size distribution on the construction plate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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Review

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23 pages, 3351 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements in Laser Wire-Feed Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Brief Review

by Mohammad Abuabiah, Natago Guilé Mbodj, Bahaa Shaqour, Luqman Herzallah, Adel Juaidi, Ramez Abdallah and Peter Plapper

Materials 2023, 16(5), 2030; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16052030 - 1 Mar 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5528

Abstract

Laser Wire-Feed Metal Additive Manufacturing (LWAM) is a process that utilizes a laser to heat and melt a metallic alloy wire, which is then precisely positioned on a substrate, or previous layer, to build a three-dimensional metal part. LWAM technology offers several advantages, such as high speed, cost effectiveness, precision control, and the ability to create complex geometries with near-net shape features and improved metallurgical properties. However, the technology is still in its early stages of development, and its integration into the industry is ongoing. To provide a comprehensive understanding of the LWAM technology, this review article emphasizes the importance of key aspects of LWAM, including parametric modeling, monitoring systems, control algorithms, and path-planning approaches. The study aims to identify potential gaps in the existing literature and highlight future research opportunities in the field of LWAM, with the goal of advancing its industrial application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing (Volume II))

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