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Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 February 2025 | Viewed by 8469

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nikolaos Kladovasilakis

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Guest Editor

Centre for Research and Technology-Hellas, Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: additive manufacturing; material characterization; topology optimization; architected materials; finite element models

Dr. Konstantinos Tsongas

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Guest Editor

Assistant Professor, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: additive manufacturing; lattice structures; mechanical tests and material characterization; finite element analyses; vibrations; optimization processes and genetic algorithms
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Dr. Dimitrios Tzetzis

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Associate Professor, Digital Manufacturing and Materials Characterization Laboratory, School of Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: additive manufacturing; composites; nanomaterials; processing and mechanics of materials; destructive and non-destructive testing; product design
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

New trends of international development require the creation and implementation of new technologies that will make it possible to introduce new products in new prospective markets. Additive manufacturing (AM), due to its high potential for forming complex shapes in an almost unrestricted manner, allows the production of individualized products and fully functional parts for a wide range of engineering materials, including components used in challenging operating conditions (thermal, mechanical, and corrosive environment). Research in additive manufacturing (AM) of metals has witnessed a dramatic rise in global attention during the past decade.

Despite the extensive work that has been completed on the properties of metal AM materials, there is still a need for a robust understanding of processes, challenges, application-specific needs, and considerations associated with these technologies. Therefore, this Special Issue covers these topics and focuses on to present a comprehensive review of the most common metal AM technologies, an exploration of metal AM advancements, and industrial applications for the different AM technologies across various industry sectors.

Within this context, this Special Issue aims to provide an opportunity for researchers to submit high-quality comprehensive reviews, original research papers and technical case studies in the field of metal additive manufacturing. Specific topics include but are not limited to:

Metal AM process, such as Powder bed fusion, binder jetting, direct energy deposition, Electron beam, and other customized and novel processes
Hybrid-AM techniques
Process parameter optimization
Microstructure characterization/defects–mechanical property relationships
Post-build/in situ treatments (HIP, HT, machining, shot peening, hybrid manufacturing, etc.) and their influence on material properties and final quality
Development of alloys/materials customized for AM and multi-material metal AM
Innovative and new applications of metal AM parts
Design for metal AM utilizing advanced morphologies (topology optimization process, architected materials, lattices, etc.) to enhance parts functionality and mechanical behavior

Dr. Nikolaos Kladovasilakis
Dr. Konstantinos Tsongas
Dr. Dimitrios Tzetzis
Guest Editors

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Keywords

design for metal additive manufacturing
process monitoring and optimization
post-processing
quality assessment and component characterization
hybrid additive manufacturing
multi-material metal AM
industrial applications of metal AM

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 14401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Behavior and Mechanical Properties of Different Lattice Structures Fabricated Using Selective Laser Melting

by Hui Liu, Gaoshen Cai, Kai Peng, Haozhe Jin and Antonov Alexander

Materials 2024, 17(22), 5603; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225603 - 16 Nov 2024

Viewed by 469

Abstract

In this study, the size of molten pool and the porosity of parts under different processing parameters are studied using numerical simulation. According to the results, the appropriate processing parameters were selected to simulate the temperature and residual stress distribution during the forming process of body-centered cube (BCC), face-centered cube (FCC) and rhombic dodecahedron (Dode) lattice structures. In addition, three lattice structures were fabricated via selective laser melting (SLM) technology, and quasi-static compression experiments were carried out to study their mechanical properties. The results show that the high temperature parts of the three structures are all under the node and their adjacent pillars, and the closer to the nodes, the higher the temperature. The residual stress of the Dode structure is the highest, reaching 1218.2 MPa. It is also found that the residual stress in the Z direction is the largest, which plays a dominant role in the forming process. Through compression experiments, it is found that diagonal shear failure occurs in all three lattice structures, and Dode shows the best compression performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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16 pages, 23580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Surface Quality Analysis of an Uncoated Boron Steel and Its Oxide Layer Suppression Method for Hot Stamping

by Jiho Lee, Junghan Song and Gihyun Bae

Materials 2024, 17(22), 5563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225563 - 14 Nov 2024

Viewed by 355

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of hot stamping on boron steel surface properties, comparing uncoated steel to Al–Si-coated steel, with a focus on developing atmosphere-controlled hot stamping technology. Experiments using a hat-shaped specimen revealed that uncoated steel formed a thick oxide layer due to exposure to atmospheric oxygen at high temperatures, negatively impacting surface quality and weldability. In contrast, the Al–Si-coated steel showed no oxide formation. Although uncoated steel exhibited higher average Vickers hardness, the detrimental effects of the oxide layer on weld quality necessitate advancements in process technology. A lab-scale hot stamping simulator was developed to control atmospheric oxygen levels, utilizing a donut-shaped induction heating coil to heat the material above 1000 °C, followed by rapid cooling in a forming die. Results demonstrated that maintaining oxygen concentrations below 6% significantly reduced oxide layer thickness, with near-vacuum conditions eliminating oxide formation altogether. These findings emphasize the critical role of oxygen control in enhancing the surface quality and weldability of uncoated boron steel for ultra-high-strength automotive applications, potentially reducing manufacturing costs while ensuring part performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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15 pages, 3198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nanoindentation Creep Behavior of Additively Manufactured H13 Steel by Utilizing Selective Laser Melting Technology

by Evangelos Giarmas, Emmanouil K. Tzimtzimis, Nikolaos Kladovasilakis, Dimitrios Tzovaras and Dimitrios Tzetzis

Materials 2024, 17(15), 3756; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17153756 - 30 Jul 2024

Viewed by 990

Abstract

Nowadays, H13 hot work steel is a commonly used hot work die material in the industry; however, its creep behavior for additively manufactured H13 steel parts has not been widely investigated. This research paper examines the impact of volumetric energy density (VED), a critical parameter in additive manufacturing (AM), and the effect of post heat-treatment nitrification on the creep behavior of H13 hot work tool steel, which is constructed through selective laser melting (SLM), which is a powder bed fusion process according to ISO/ASTM 52900:2021. The study utilizes nanoindentation tests to investigate the creep response and the associated parameters such as the steady-state creep strain rate. Measurements and observations taken during the holding phase offer a valuable understanding of the behavior of the studied material. The findings of this study highlight a substantial influence of both VED and nitrification on several factors including hardness, modulus of elasticity, indentation depth, and creep displacement. Interestingly, the creep strain rate appears to be largely unaltered by these parameters. The study concludes with the observation that the creep stress exponent (n) shows a decreasing trend with an increase in VED and the application of nitrification treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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11 pages, 3169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accuracy of Mandibular Removable Partial Denture Frameworks Fabricated by 3D Printing and Conventional Techniques

by Soonam Kim, Kyung Chul Oh and Jee-Hwan Kim

Materials 2024, 17(13), 3148; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17133148 - 27 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1287

Abstract

Herein, we used digital superimposition to evaluate the accuracy of metal frameworks for mandibular removable partial dentures fabricated using three techniques. Thirty master casts of a mandibular dentiform were categorized into three groups (n = 10) based on the framework manufacturing method: selective laser melting-based metal three-dimensional (3D) printing (SLM), digital light projection-based resin 3D printing and subsequent casting (RPC), and conventional casting (CON). The master casts were scanned twice, initially after preparation and subsequently after attaching silicone using the frameworks. These scan files were digitally superimposed to measure the silicone thickness. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS Statistics (Version 23.0, IBM Corp., Somers, NY, USA). One-way ANOVA and a post hoc Tukey’s multiple comparison tests were performed to determine differences among the three groups (α = 0.05). The RPC group exhibited significantly higher overall and mean internal discrepancies at rest and tissue stops than the SLM and CON groups, which exhibited statistically insignificant differences. Thus, SLM fabrication resulted in comparable accuracy to that achieved by CON, whereas sequentially performing resin 3D printing and casting induced inferior accuracy. However, all frameworks across the three groups were clinically acceptable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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11 pages, 4060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Cooling Liquid on the Milled Interface in the Combined Process of Milling and Direct Metal Deposition

by Sergei Egorov, Timo Schudeleit and Konrad Wegener

Materials 2024, 17(13), 3119; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17133119 - 25 Jun 2024

Viewed by 918

Abstract

The combination of Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) with milling offers numerous advantages for the manufacturing of complex geometry parts demanding high dimensional accuracy and surface quality. To reach this, a process strategy alternation between both processes is often required, leaving the milled surface with a layer of cooling fluid before adding material by DMD. This paper investigates the effect of cooling liquid on the milled interface in the combined process of milling and DMD. Five different interface conditions were examined, employing four distinct cleaning techniques to assess their impact on the quality of the interface. Key metrics analysed included hydrogen content, carbon content, and porosity levels at the interface. Cleaning techniques were evaluated to determine their necessity in enhancing the interface quality in the combined DMD and milling production process. Results from this study provide essential insights into the optimal cleaning requirements for improving the interface integrity in hybrid manufacturing processes, which could lead to more reliable and efficient production methods in industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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15 pages, 5357 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metal 3D-Printed Bioinspired Lattice Elevator Braking Pads for Enhanced Dynamic Friction Performance

by Nikolaos Kladovasilakis, Eleftheria Maria Pechlivani, Ioanna K. Sfampa, Konstantinos Tsongas, Apostolos Korlos, Constantine David and Dimitrios Tzovaras

Materials 2024, 17(11), 2765; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112765 - 5 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 962

Abstract

The elevator industry is constantly expanding creating an increased demand for the integration of high technological tools to increase elevator efficiency and safety. Towards this direction, Additive Manufacturing (AM), and especially metal AM, is one of the technologies that could offer numerous competitive advantages in the production of industrial parts, such as integration of complex geometry, high manufacturability of high-strength metal alloys, etc. In this context, the present study has 3D designed, 3D printing manufactured, and evaluated novel bioinspired structures for elevator safety gear friction pads with the aim of enhancing their dynamic friction performance and eliminating the undesired behavior properties observed in conventional pads. Four different friction pads with embedded bioinspired surface lattice structures were formed on the template of the friction surface of the conventional pads and 3D printed by the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) process utilizing tool steel H13 powder as feedstock material. Each safety gear friction pad underwent tribological tests to evaluate its dynamic coefficient of friction (CoF). The results indicated that pads with a high contact surface area, such as those with car-tire-like and extended honeycomb structures, exhibit high CoF of 0.549 and 0.459, respectively. Based on the acquired CoFs, Finite Element Models (FEM) were developed to access the performance of braking pads under realistic operation conditions, highlighting the lower stress concentration for the aforementioned designs. The 3D-printed safety gear friction pads were assembled in an existing emergency progressive safety gear system of KLEEMANN Group, providing sufficient functionality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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17 pages, 10287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of “ColdArc” WAAM Regime and Arc Torch Weaving on Microstructure and Properties of As-Built and Subtransus Quenched Ti-6Al-4V

by Anna Zykova, Nikolai Savchenko, Aleksandra Nikolaeva, Aleksander Panfilov, Andrey Vorontsov, Vyacheslav Semenchuk, Denis Gurianov, Evgeny Kolubaev and Sergei Tarasov

Materials 2024, 17(10), 2325; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102325 - 14 May 2024

Viewed by 919

Abstract

Defect-free thin-walled samples were built using wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) combined with the “coldArc” deposition technique by feeding a Ti-6Al-4V welding wire and using two deposition strategies, namely with and without the welding torch weaving. The microstructures formed in these samples were examined in relation to mechanical characteristics. The arc torch weaving at 1 Hz allowed us to interfere with the epitaxial growth of the β-Ti columnar grains and, thus, obtain them a lower aspect ratio. Upon cooling, the α/α′+β structure was formed inside the former β-Ti grains, and this structure proved to be more uniform as compared to that of the samples built without the weaving. The subtransus quenching of the samples in water did not have any effect on the structure and properties of samples built with the arc torch weaving, whereas a more uniform grain structure was formed in the sample built without weaving. Quenching resulted also in a reduction in the relative elongation by 30% in both cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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18 pages, 3353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of the Technology of Precision Forging of Connecting Rod-Type Forgings in a Multiple System, in the Aspect of the Possibilities of Process Robotization by Means of Numerical Modeling

by Marek Hawryluk, Łukasz Dudkiewicz, Sławomir Polak, Artur Barełkowski, Adrian Miżejewski and Tatiana Szymańska

Materials 2024, 17(5), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17051087 - 27 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1316

Abstract

The study refers to the application of numerical modeling for the improvement of the currently realized precision forging technology performed on a hammer to produce connecting rod forgings in a triple system through the development of an additional rolling pass to be used before the roughing operation as well as preparation of the charge to be held by the robot’s grippers in order to implement future process robotization. The studies included an analysis of the present forging technology together with the dimension–shape requirements for the forgings, which constituted the basis for the construction and development of a thermo-mechanical numerical model as well as the design of the tool construction with the consideration of the additional rolling pass with the use of the calculation package Forge 3.0 NxT. The following stage of research was the realization of multi-variant numerical simulations of the newly developed forging process with the consideration of robotization, as a result of which the following were obtained: proper filling of the tool impressions (including the roller’s impression) by the deformed material, the temperature distributions for the forging and the tools as well as plastic deformations (considering the thermally activated phenomena), changes in the grain size as well as the forging force and energy courses. The obtained results were verified under industrial conditions and correlated with respect to the forgings obtained in the technology applied so far. The achieved results of technological tests confirmed that the changes introduced into the tool construction and the preform geometry reduced the diameter, and thus also the volume, of the charge as well as provided a possibility of implementing robotization and automatization of the forging process in the future. The obtained results showed that the introduction of an additional rolling blank resulted in a reduction in forging forces and energy by 30% while reducing the hammer blow by one. Attempts to implement robotization into the process were successful and did not adversely affect the geometry or quality of forgings, increasing production efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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Review

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12 pages, 1995 KiB

Open AccessReview

Various Configurations for Improving the Efficiency of Metallic and Superconducting Photocathodes Prepared by Pulsed Laser Deposition: A Comparative Review

by Alessio Perrone, Muhammad Rizwan Aziz and Francisco Gontad

Materials 2024, 17(21), 5257; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17215257 - 29 Oct 2024

Viewed by 467

Abstract

This paper presents an innovative exploration of advanced configurations for enhancing the efficiency of metallic and superconducting photocathodes (MPs and SCPs) produced via pulsed laser deposition (PLD). These photocathodes are critical for driving next-generation free-electron lasers (FELs) and plasma-based accelerators, both of which demand electron sources with improved quantum efficiency (QE) and electrical properties. Our approach compares three distinct photocathode configurations, namely: conventional, hybrid, and non-conventional, focusing on recent innovations. Hybrid MPs integrate a thin, high-performance, photo-emissive film, often yttrium or magnesium, positioned centrally on the copper flange of the photo-injector. For hybrid SCPs, a thin film of lead is used, offering a higher quantum efficiency than niobium bulk. This study also introduces non-conventional configurations, such as yttrium and lead disks partially coated with copper and niobium films, respectively. These designs utilize the unique properties of each material to achieve enhanced photoemission and long-term stability. The novelty of this approach lies in leveraging the advantages of bulk photoemission materials like yttrium and lead, while maintaining the electrical compatibility and durability required for integration into RF cavities. The findings highlight the potential of these configurations to significantly outperform traditional photocathodes, offering higher QE and extended operational lifetimes. This comparative analysis provides new insights into the fabrication of high-efficiency photocathodes, setting the foundation for future advancements in electron source technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing: Design, Performance, and Applications)

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