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Medicina
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Advances in Sports Science
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Advances in Sports Science

A special issue of Medicina (ISSN 1648-9144). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Medicine and Sports Traumatology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2021) | Viewed by 38431

Special Issue Editors

Prof. David M. Bellar

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Guest Editor
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
Interests: sport performance; cardiorespiratory testing; elite athlete monitoring; sport nutrition
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Randy Aldret

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine
Interests: sport medicine; sport performance; elite athlete monitoring
Dr. Greggory Davis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA
Interests: oxidative stress; overtraining; sport performance; elite athlete monitoring
Dr. Stephanie Aldret

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine
Interests: sport medicine; sport performance; concussion and sport

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We invite the submission of manuscripts for a Special Issue of Medicina entitled “Advances in Sport Science.” The study of sports and sports performance is rapidly evolving, and is different in nature to exercise science. Sport science refers to inquiries designed to understand, describe, or improve health, performance, or other outcomes directly related to a sport or groups of sports. As such, it is narrower in scope than many studies on exercise in general, but also more generalizable for athletes and practitioners, such as strength and conditioning coaches or technical coaches. Within this context, we encourage the submission of papers that focus on applied studies for sports and sport performance. Papers that focus on elite athlete populations are particularly encouraged, as are studies that take a holistic approach to sport science, considering the athlete from a multisystem point of view. In addition, studies on longitudinal athlete development and athlete safety are also encouraged.

Prof. David M. Bellar
Dr. Randy Aldret
Dr. Greggory Davis
Dr. Stephanie Aldret
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Medicina is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • athletic performance
  • whole athlete model
  • athlete health

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 3009 KiB  
Article
No Trends in the Age of Peak Performance among the Best Half-Marathoners and Marathoners in the World between 1997–2020
by Mabliny Thuany, Thayse Natacha Gomes, Thomas Rosemann, Beat Knechtle and Raphael Fabrício de Souza
Medicina 2021, 57(5), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57050409 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2208
Abstract
Background and Objectives: We examined the possible trend in the age of peak performance in elite endurance athletes according to sex, continent of athletes’ national citizenship, and ranking position. Since performance is a multifactorial trait, this information can be used to guide [...] Read more.
Background and Objectives: We examined the possible trend in the age of peak performance in elite endurance athletes according to sex, continent of athletes’ national citizenship, and ranking position. Since performance is a multifactorial trait, this information can be used to guide the long-term training and to plan the strategies related to the selection process of athletes. Materials and methods: Information of 1852 professional athletes, classified as top 20 performance of each year in marathon and half-marathon events between 1997 and 2020 were considered. Analysis of variance was computed to test differences in age between sex, continent, and rank position. Results: A significant difference between groups in the mean age of peak performance was observed (F (3, 1884) = 42,31; p < 0.001). For both sexes, half-marathoners were younger than marathoners (male, 25.6 ± 3.6 years vs. 28.0 ± 3.9 years; female, 27.5 ± 4.4 years vs. 28.4 ± 4.1). Female half-marathoners in 2004 presented the highest mean age (31.1 ± 4.8 years) compared to their peers in the years 1997, 2001, 2018 and 2019; among male half-marathoners, those in 1999 presented the highest mean age when compared to 2011, 2018, and 2019. Differences between the continents of athletes’ national citizenship were observed (F (4, 1884) = 62,85,601; p < 0,001). Asian runners presented the lowest mean age (26.5 ± 3.7 years), while their European peers presented the highest (31.1 ± 3.9 years). No significant interaction between sex and ranking position was verified. Differences were observed between sexes for categories “4th–10th positions” and “11th–20th” (F (1, 1879) = 23,114; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Over the last two decades, no clear trend was observed in the changes in the age of peak performance among endurance athletes of both sexes, but, in general, female half-marathoners tended to be significantly older than their male peers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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11 pages, 1075 KiB  
Article
Pacing in Long-Distance Running: Sex and Age Differences in 10-km Race and Marathon
by Ivan Cuk, Pantelis T. Nikolaidis, Elias Villiger and Beat Knechtle
Medicina 2021, 57(4), 389; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57040389 - 17 Apr 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3376
Abstract
Background and objective: The recent availability of data from mass-participation running events has allowed researchers to examine pacing from the perspective of non-elite distance runners. Based on an extensive analysis of the literature, we concluded that no study utilizing mass-participation events data [...] Read more.
Background and objective: The recent availability of data from mass-participation running events has allowed researchers to examine pacing from the perspective of non-elite distance runners. Based on an extensive analysis of the literature, we concluded that no study utilizing mass-participation events data has ever directly compared pacing in the 10-km race, with other long-distance races. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to assess and compare pacing between 10-km runners and marathoners, in regards to their sex and age. Materials and methods: For the purpose of this study, official results from the Oslo marathon (n = 8828) and 10-km race (n = 16,315) held from 2015 to 2018 were included. Results: Both 10-km runners and marathoners showed positive pacing strategies. Moreover, two-way analysis of variance showed that women were less likely to slow in the marathon than men (9.85% in comparison to 12.70%) however, not in the 10-km race (3.99% in comparison to 3.38%). Finally, pace changing is more prominent in youngest and oldest marathoners comparing to the other age groups (12.55% in comparison to 10.96%). Conclusions: Based on these findings, practitioners should adopt different training programmes for marathoners in comparison to shorter long-distance runners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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11 pages, 1307 KiB  
Article
Sex-Specific Autonomic Responses to Acute Resistance Exercise
by Stacie M. Humm, Emily K. Erb, Emily C. Tagesen and J. Derek Kingsley
Medicina 2021, 57(4), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57040307 - 24 Mar 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2089
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Acute resistance exercise (RE) reduces vagal modulation and increases sympathovagal balance, which increases the risk for arrythmias. Few studies have examined sex differences in autonomic modulation after acute RE. The purpose of this investigation was to examine sex-specific responses to [...] Read more.
Background and Objectives: Acute resistance exercise (RE) reduces vagal modulation and increases sympathovagal balance, which increases the risk for arrythmias. Few studies have examined sex differences in autonomic modulation after acute RE. The purpose of this investigation was to examine sex-specific responses to acute RE on autonomic modulation. Materials and Methods: Twenty-one resistance-trained individuals (men n = 11, women n = 10) between the ages of 19 and 25 y were analyzed for autonomic modulation in response to acute RE and a control (CON). Measures of autonomic modulation were collected at rest, 15 (R15), and 30 (R30) min following both conditions. Heart rate (HR), log transformed root mean square of successive differences (lnRMSSD), total power (lnTP), low-frequency power (lnLF), high-frequency power (lnHF), sample entropy (SampEn), and Lempel-Ziv entropy (LZEn) were measured at all time points. A three-way repeated analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze sex (men, women) across condition (RE, CON) and time (Rest, R15, R30). Results: The results are similar for all heart rate variability (HRV) variables at rest for both conditions (RE, CON). SampEn was significantly higher in men compared to women at rest for both conditions (p = 0.03), with no differences in LZEn (p > 0.05). There were no significant (p > 0.05) three-way interactions on any variables. Condition by time interactions demonstrated that both sexes increase in HR (p = 0.0001) and lnLF/HF ratio (p = 0.001), but decreases in lnRMSSD (p = 0.0001), lnTP (p < 0.0001), lnLF (p < 0.0001), lnHF (p = 0.0001), and LZEn (p = 0.009) at R15 and R30 compared to rest following acute RE and were different from CON. Condition by time interaction (p = 0.017) demonstrated that SampEn was attenuated at R15 compared to rest, and the CON, but not R30 following acute RE. Conclusion: Although SampEn is more complex at rest in men compared to women, autonomic modulation responses between sexes following acute RE appear to be similar. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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8 pages, 1161 KiB  
Article
Effects of 4-Week Inspiratory Muscle Training on Sport Performance in College 800-Meter Track Runners
by Yun-Chi Chang, Hsiao-Yun Chang, Chien-Chang Ho, Po-Fu Lee, Yi-Chen Chou, Mei-Wun Tsai and Li-Wei Chou
Medicina 2021, 57(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57010072 - 15 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5928
Abstract
Background and objectives: Respiratory muscle fatigue is one of the important factors limiting sports performance due to the metaboreflex. This reflex will cause a decrease in blood flow to the extremities and accelerate exercising limb fatigue. Previous studies found that inspiratory muscle training [...] Read more.
Background and objectives: Respiratory muscle fatigue is one of the important factors limiting sports performance due to the metaboreflex. This reflex will cause a decrease in blood flow to the extremities and accelerate exercising limb fatigue. Previous studies found that inspiratory muscle training (IMT) can effectively enhance the respiratory muscle endurance and reduce fatigue during long-duration exercise or aerobic exercise, thereby enhancing athletic performance. However, the mechanism between inspiratory muscle strength, change of limb blood flow and sports performance still requires investigation, especially in short-duration exercise, anaerobic or both aerobic and anaerobic exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 4-week inspiratory muscle training on respiratory muscle strength, limb blood flow change rate and sports performance in recreational 800-m college runners. Materials and Methods: Twenty healthy 800-m college runners randomized into the IMT group (11 subjects) and control group (9 subjects). IMT consisted of 30 inspiratory efforts twice daily, 5 days a week, with intensity at 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% of maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP) for 4 weeks, while a control group kept 50% of MIP for 4 weeks. An 800-m trial test, limb blood flow change rate by using Impedance Plethysmography, and MIP were as the outcome measured variables and be evaluated. All measured variables were assessed before and after 4-week IMT training. Two-way ANOVA was conducted for statistical analysis. Results: The results showed significantly interaction between groups and pre-posttest. IMT group significantly decreased limb blood flow change rate from 19.91 ± 11.65% to 9.63 ± 7.62% after received the IMT training program (p < 0.05). The MIP significantly improved from 112.95 ± 27.13 cmH2O to 131.09 ± 28.20 cm H2O in IMT group, and the 800-m trial test also shorted the running time from 162.97 ± 24.96 s to 156.75 ± 20.73 s. But the control group no significantly changed in MIP and 800-m trial test. Conclusions: Our results indicated that the 4-week IMT training (twice a day, 5 days a week) significantly improves participants’ inspiratory muscle strength, 800-m running performance and decreases the limb blood flow change rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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8 pages, 286 KiB  
Article
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Endurance and Ultra-Endurance Running
by Volker Scheer, David Valero, Elias Villiger, Thomas Rosemann and Beat Knechtle
Medicina 2021, 57(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57010052 - 9 Jan 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4874
Abstract
Background and objectives: The COVID-19 outbreak has become a major health and economic crisis. The World Health Organization declared it a pandemic in March 2020, and many sporting events were canceled. Materials and Methods: We examined the effects of the COVID-19 [...] Read more.
Background and objectives: The COVID-19 outbreak has become a major health and economic crisis. The World Health Organization declared it a pandemic in March 2020, and many sporting events were canceled. Materials and Methods: We examined the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on endurance and ultra-endurance running (UER) and analyzed finishes and events during the COVID-19 pandemic (observation period March 2020–October 2020) to the same time period pre-COVID-19 outbreak (March 2019–October 2019). Results: Endurance finishes decreased during the pandemic (459,029 to 42,656 (male: 277,493 to 25,582; female 181,536 to 17,074; all p < 0.001). Similarly, the numbers of endurance events decreased (213 vs. 61 events; p < 0.001). Average marathon finishing times decreased during the pandemic in men (5:18:03 ± 0:16:34 vs. 4:43:08 ± 0:25:08 h:min:s (p = 0.006)) and women (5:39:32 ± 0:19:29 vs. 5:14:29 ± 0:26:36 h:min:s (p = 0.02)). In UER, finishes decreased significantly (580,289 to 110,055; p < 0.001) as did events (5839 to 1791; p < 0.001). Popular event locations in United States, France, UK, and Germany decreased significantly (p < 0.05). All distance and time-limited UER events saw significant decreases (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant effect on endurance and UER, and it is unlikely that running activities return to pre-pandemic levels any time soon. Mitigation strategies and safety protocols should be established. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
12 pages, 604 KiB  
Article
Predictive Validity of a Functional Movement Screen in Professional Basketball Players
by Donald L. Hoover, Clyde B. Killian, Rachel A. Tinius, David M. Bellar, Steven G. Wilkinson, Francis T. Esslinger and Lawrence W. Judge
Medicina 2020, 56(12), 724; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina56120724 - 21 Dec 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3165
Abstract
Background and objectives: Striking a balance between maximizing performance and preventing injury remains elusive in many professional sports. The purpose of this study was to assess the relative risk of non-contact injuries in professional basketball players based on predictive cut scores on [...] Read more.
Background and objectives: Striking a balance between maximizing performance and preventing injury remains elusive in many professional sports. The purpose of this study was to assess the relative risk of non-contact injuries in professional basketball players based on predictive cut scores on the Functional Movement Screen™ (FMS). Materials and Methods: Thirty-two professional basketball players from the National Basketball Association (NBA) and Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) participated in this study. This observational pilot cohort study assessed and scored each participant using the FMS during training camp. Each athlete was then tracked throughout the season while recording the number, type, and time lost due to injuries. Possible exposures, actual exposures, and exposures missed due to non-contact injury (NCI) for each athlete were calculated and then used to determine the crude and specific incident rates for exposures missed due to NCI per 1000 exposures. Results: Linear regression models were used to evaluate the predictive ability of the FMS score for total missed exposures, NCI, and CI missed exposures. In all models, the FMS total score failed to attain significance as a predictor (p > 0.05). FMS scores ranged from 5 to 18. The recommended cut score of 14 showed a sensitivity of 0.474 and a specificity of 0.750. The cut score of 15 showed the best combination, exhibiting a sensitivity of 0.579 and specificity of 0.625. A total of 5784 exposures to NCI were possible for the men and women combined, and 681 possible exposures were missed. Of these, 23.5% were due to NCI, 16.5% were due to contact injuries (CI), and 60% were due to illnesses and personal reasons. Conclusions: The FMS proved to be a measure that was not associated with any injury measure in this sample of professional basketball players, suggesting the instrument lacks predictive validity in this population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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9 pages, 717 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Vinegar Supplementation on High-Intensity Cycling Performance within Recreationally Trained Individuals
by Tyler M. Farney, Robert J. Kowalsky, Dassy A. Salazar, Alyssa N. Fick, Arnold G. Nelson and Christopher M. Hearon
Medicina 2020, 56(9), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina56090429 - 27 Aug 2020
Viewed by 2509
Abstract
Background and objectives: To investigate the effects of vinegar ingestion upon high-intensity cycle performance in recreationally trained individuals. Materials and methods: Twenty-two participants consumed one of the following in a randomized order on four separate visits: (1) 29 mL of vinegar [...] Read more.
Background and objectives: To investigate the effects of vinegar ingestion upon high-intensity cycle performance in recreationally trained individuals. Materials and methods: Twenty-two participants consumed one of the following in a randomized order on four separate visits: (1) 29 mL of vinegar along with 451 mL of water, (2) 39 g of sucrose along with 441 mL of water, (3) 29 mL of vinegar and 39 g of sucrose along with 412 mL of water, or (4) 480 mL of water alone. For each of the experimental testing sessions, all participants completed in order: (1) high-intensity cycle test 1, (2) fatiguing cycle test, (3) high-intensity cycle test 2, (4) supplement consumption, (5) 90 min rest period, and (6) high-intensity cycle test 3. Total time to exhaustion (TTE) and average heart rate (HR) for each set of sprints was used in analysis. Results: There was no supplement by time interaction or significant main treatment effect observed (p > 0.05) for either TTE or HR. However, there was a main time effect observed, with TTE (p = 0.0001) being lower for cycle test 2 than both cycle test 1 and cycle test 3, and cycle test 3 being lower than cycle test 1. HR (p = 0.0001) was lower for cycle test 3 than both cycle test 1 and cycle test 2, but HR for cycle test 1 did not differ significantly from HR for cycle test 2. Conclusions: The addition of vinegar or sucrose alone, or in combination, was ineffective in improving cycle sprinting TTE when performing three cycle tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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9 pages, 477 KiB  
Article
A Fraction of Recommended Practices: Implementation of the FIFA 11+ in NCAA Soccer Programs
by Lawrence W. Judge, Jeffrey C. Petersen, Donald L. Hoover, Bruce W. Craig, Nick Nordmann, Makenzie A. Schoeff, Brian D. Fox, D. Clark Dickin and David M. Bellar
Medicina 2020, 56(9), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina56090417 - 19 Aug 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3089
Abstract
Background and Objectives: National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) soccer coaches implement numerous warm-up and flexibility strategies to prepare athletes for training and competition. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) developed the 11+ injury prevention program to reduce non-contact injuries. This study aimed [...] Read more.
Background and Objectives: National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) soccer coaches implement numerous warm-up and flexibility strategies to prepare athletes for training and competition. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) developed the 11+ injury prevention program to reduce non-contact injuries. This study aimed to analyze the level of familiarity with and implementation of the evidence-based FIFA 11+ amongst NCAA Division I (DI) and Division III (DIII) men’s and women’s soccer coaches. Materials and Methods: NCAA soccer coaches in the United States received an Institutional Review Board—approved survey hyperlink. A total of 240 coaches completed the survey. The respondents represented 47.5% men’s and 52.5% women’s teams distributed within DI and DIII programs. Descriptive statistics are reported as frequency counts and mean ± standard deviation where applicable. Pearson’s chi-square tests were performed to assess potential differences with a significance level set at α < 0.05. Results: The results indicated that approximately 62% of the respondents reported being familiar with the FIFA 11+ program. Of those coaches familiar with the program, 15.0% reported full implementation, 57.5% reported partial implementation, and 27.5% reported no implementation. Chi-square analyses revealed significant differences in FIFA 11+ implementation based upon division level (χ2 = 4.56, p = 0.033) and coaching certification levels (χ2 = 13.11, p = 0.011). Conclusions: This study indicates that there is a gap between FIFA 11+ knowledge and actual implementation. To reduce the risk of non-contact injury, there is a need to educate coaches and athletic trainers on the purpose of the FIFA 11+ program and how to perform the exercises correctly. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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Review

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18 pages, 457 KiB  
Review
Vitamin D and Stress Fractures in Sport: Preventive and Therapeutic Measures—A Narrative Review
by Beat Knechtle, Zbigniew Jastrzębski, Lee Hill and Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
Medicina 2021, 57(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57030223 - 1 Mar 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 9663
Abstract
There are numerous risk factors for stress fractures that have been identified in literature. Among different risk factors, a prolonged lack of vitamin D (25(OH)D) can lead to stress fractures in athletes since 25(OH)D insufficiency is associated with an increased incidence of a [...] Read more.
There are numerous risk factors for stress fractures that have been identified in literature. Among different risk factors, a prolonged lack of vitamin D (25(OH)D) can lead to stress fractures in athletes since 25(OH)D insufficiency is associated with an increased incidence of a fracture. A 25(OH)D value of <75.8 nmol/L is a risk factor for a stress fracture. 25(OH)D deficiency is, however, only one of several potential risk factors. Well-documented risk factors for a stress fracture include female sex, white ethnicity, older age, taller stature, lower aerobic fitness, prior physical inactivity, greater amounts of current physical training, thinner bones, 25(OH)D deficiency, iron deficiency, menstrual disturbances, and inadequate intake of 25(OH)D and/or calcium. Stress fractures are not uncommon in athletes and affect around 20% of all competitors. Most athletes with a stress fracture are under 25 years of age. Stress fractures can affect every sporty person, from weekend athletes to top athletes. Stress fractures are common in certain sports disciplines such as basketball, baseball, athletics, rowing, soccer, aerobics, and classical ballet. The lower extremity is increasingly affected for stress fractures with the locations of the tibia, metatarsalia and pelvis. Regarding prevention and therapy, 25(OH)D seems to play an important role. Athletes should have an evaluation of 25(OH)D -dependent calcium homeostasis based on laboratory tests of 25-OH-D3, calcium, creatinine, and parathyroid hormone. In case of a deficiency of 25(OH)D, normal blood levels of ≥30 ng/mL may be restored by optimizing the athlete’s lifestyle and, if appropriate, an oral substitution of 25(OH)D. Very recent studies suggested that the prevalence of stress fractures decreased when athletes are supplemented daily with 800 IU 25(OH)D and 2000 mg calcium. Recommendations of daily 25(OH)D intake may go up to 2000 IU of 25(OH)D per day. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Science)
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