Membranes

Research

22 pages, 5602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pore-Level Multiphase Simulations of Realistic Distillation Membranes for Water Desalination

by Tobias Jäger, Athanasios Mokos, Nikolaos I. Prasianakis and Stephan Leyer

Membranes 2022, 12(11), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12111112 - 8 Nov 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2078

Membrane distillation (MD) is a thermally driven separation process that is operated below boiling point. Since the performance of MD modules is still comparatively low, current research aims to improve the understanding of the membrane structure and its underlying mechanisms at the pore [...] Read more.

Membrane distillation (MD) is a thermally driven separation process that is operated below boiling point. Since the performance of MD modules is still comparatively low, current research aims to improve the understanding of the membrane structure and its underlying mechanisms at the pore level. Based on existing realistic 3D membrane geometries (up to 0.5 billion voxels with

39 nm

resolution) obtained from ptychographic X-ray computed tomography, the D3Q27 lattice Boltzmann (LB) method was used to investigate the interaction of the liquid and gaseous phase with the porous membrane material. In particular, the Shan and Chen multi-phase model was used to simulate multi-phase flow at the pore level. We investigated the liquid entry pressure of different membrane samples and analysed the influence of different micropillar structures on the Wenzel and Cassie–Baxter state of water droplets on rough hydrophobic surfaces. Moreover, we calculated the liquid entry pressure required for entering the membrane pores and extracted realistic water contact surfaces for different membrane samples. The influence of the micropillars and flow on the water-membrane contact surface was investigated. Finally, we determined the air–water interface within a partially saturated membrane, finding that the droplet size and distribution correlated with the porosity of the membrane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 4075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fouling Analysis in One-Stage Ultrafiltration of Precipitation-Treated Bacillus subtilis Fermentation Liquors for Biosurfactant Recovery

by Mai Lien Tran, Ying-Shr Chen and Ruey-Shin Juang

Membranes 2022, 12(11), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12111057 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1630

Abstract

Primary recovery of surfactin from precipitation-pretreated fermentation broths of Bacillus subtilis ATCC 21332 culture by one-stage dead-end and cross-flow ultrafiltration (UF) was studied. Dead-end experiments were first performed to select suitable conditions, including the amount of added ethanol—a micelle-destabilizing solvent (0–70 vol%), type [...] Read more.

Primary recovery of surfactin from precipitation-pretreated fermentation broths of Bacillus subtilis ATCC 21332 culture by one-stage dead-end and cross-flow ultrafiltration (UF) was studied. Dead-end experiments were first performed to select suitable conditions, including the amount of added ethanol—a micelle-destabilizing solvent (0–70 vol%), type (polyethersulfone, polyacrylonitrile, poly(vinylidene fluoride)) and molecular-weight cut-off (MWCO, 30–100 kDa) of the membrane in the surfactin concentration range of 0.25–1.23 g/L. Then, the cross-flow UF experiments were conducted to check the recovery performance in the ranges of feed surfactin concentration of 1.13–2.67 g/L, flow velocity of 0.025–0.05 m/s, and transmembrane pressure of 40–100 kPa. The Hermia model was also used to clarify membrane fouling mechanisms. Finally, three cleaning agents and two in situ cleaning ways (flush and back-flush) were selected to regain the permeate flux. As for the primary recovery of surfactin from the permeate in cross-flow UF, a polyethersulfone membrane with 100-kDa MWCO was suggested, and the NaOH solution at pH 11 was used for membrane flushing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 1391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dispersive Membrane Microextraction of Substituted Phenols from Honey Samples and a Brief Outlook on Its Sustainability Using Analytical Eco-Scale and Analytical GREEnness Metric Approach

by Kumuthini Chandrasekaram, Yatimah Alias and Sharifah Mohamad

Membranes 2022, 12(7), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12070649 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1937

Abstract

Honey is part and parcel of our daily nutrition, but in recent times it has been reported to be tainted by the presence of polar substituted phenols purported from the use of pesticides, herbicides, antimicrobial agents, etc. Honey’s viscous nature and matrix complexity [...] Read more.

Honey is part and parcel of our daily nutrition, but in recent times it has been reported to be tainted by the presence of polar substituted phenols purported from the use of pesticides, herbicides, antimicrobial agents, etc. Honey’s viscous nature and matrix complexity often result in analytical chemists resorting to derivatization for the detection of polar analytes such as substituted phenols. This study aims to overcome the matrix effect without derivatization and offer a more sustainable solution with notable sensitivity and selectivity using dispersive membrane microextraction alongside high-performance liquid chromatography (DMME–HPLC) with sporopollenin–methylimidazolium-based mixed matrix membrane (Sp–MIM-MMM). The DMME–HPLC approach successfully determined the presence of mono- and disubstituted phenols from unspiked honey samples with concentrations ranging from 7.8 to 154.7 ng/mL. The sustainability of the proposed method was also validated using the Analytical Eco-Scale (AES) and the Analytical GREEnness Metric (AGREE) where an excellent score of 94 and the encouraging score of 0.72 were recorded, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 7457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of UF Membrane Rotation on Filtration Performance Using High Concentration Latex Emulsion Solution

by Kazutaka Takata and Katsuyoshi Tanida

Membranes 2022, 12(4), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12040422 - 14 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1865

Abstract

A high shear rate can be applied to fluid near a membrane surface by rotating the membrane. This shear rate enables higher permeate flux and higher concentration operation when compared with a conventional cross-flow membrane since fouling and/or concentration polarization are reduced. The [...] Read more.

A high shear rate can be applied to fluid near a membrane surface by rotating the membrane. This shear rate enables higher permeate flux and higher concentration operation when compared with a conventional cross-flow membrane since fouling and/or concentration polarization are reduced. The purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between the fluid behavior and membrane separation characteristics of a rotating membrane surface when a latex aqueous solution was used. Due to the synergistic effect of particle removal by the centrifugal forces generated by the rotation of the membrane and the reduction in the thickness of the velocity boundary layer, membrane filtration of high-concentration slurry, which is difficult to dewater by the cross-flow method, is possible. The experimental data using an aqueous latex solution with a wide range of slurry concentrations and various membrane diameters are well correlated using a shear rate derived from the boundary layer theory. It is thus confirmed that the shear rate can be used as a design and operating parameter to define the membrane filtration characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 6274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical and Experimental Studies of CO₂ Absorption in Double-Unit Flat-Plate Membrane Contactors

by Chii-Dong Ho, Hsuan Chang, Jr-Wei Tu, Jun-Wei Lim, Chung-Pao Chiou and Yu-Jie Chen

Membranes 2022, 12(4), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12040370 - 29 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2047

Abstract

Theoretical predictions of carbon dioxide absorption flux were analyzed by developing one-dimensional mathematical modeling using the chemical absorption theory based on mass-transfer resistances in series. The CO₂ absorption into monoethanolamine (MEA) solutions was treated as chemical absorption, accompanied by a large equilibrium [...] Read more.

Theoretical predictions of carbon dioxide absorption flux were analyzed by developing one-dimensional mathematical modeling using the chemical absorption theory based on mass-transfer resistances in series. The CO₂ absorption into monoethanolamine (MEA) solutions was treated as chemical absorption, accompanied by a large equilibrium constant. The experimental work of the CO₂ absorption flux using MEA solution was conducted in double-unit flat-plate membrane contactors with embedded 3D turbulence promoters under various absorbent flow rates, CO₂ feed flow rates, and inlet CO₂ concentrations in the gas feed stream for both concurrent and countercurrent flow operations. A more compact double-unit module with embedded 3D turbulence promoters could increase the membrane stability to prevent flow-induced vibration and enhance the CO₂ absorption rate by overwhelming the concentration polarization on the membrane surfaces. The measured absorption fluxes with a near pseudo-first-order reaction were in good agreement with the theoretical predictions for the CO₂ absorption efficiency in aqueous MEA solutions, which was shown to be substantially larger than the physical absorption in water. By embedding 3D turbulence promoters in the MEA feed channel, the new design accomplishes a considerable CO₂ absorption flux compared with an empty channel as well as the single unit module. This demonstrates the value and originality of the present study regarding the technical feasibility. The absorption flux enhancement for the double-unit module with embedded 3D turbulence promoters could provide a maximum relative increase of up to 40% due to the diminution in the concentration polarization effect. The correlated equation of the average Sherwood number was obtained numerically using the fourth Runge–Kutta method in a generalized and simplified expression to calculate the mass transfer coefficient of the CO₂ absorption in the double-unit flat-plate membrane contactor with turbulence promoter channels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Operational Limits of the Bulk Hybrid Liquid Membranes Based on Dispersion Systems

by Andreea Ferencz (Dinu), Alexandra Raluca Grosu, Hussam Nadum Abdalraheem Al-Ani, Aurelia Cristina Nechifor, Szidonia-Katalin Tanczos, Paul Constantin Albu, Mihaela Emanuela Crăciun, Mihail-Răzvan Ioan, Vlad-Alexandru Grosu and Gheorghe Nechifor

Membranes 2022, 12(2), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020190 - 5 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1855

Abstract

Liquid membranes usually have three main constructive variants: bulk liquid membranes (BLM), supported liquid membranes (SLM) and emulsion liquid membranes (ELM). Designing hybrid variants is very topical, with the main purpose of increasing the flow of substance through the membrane but also of [...] Read more.

Liquid membranes usually have three main constructive variants: bulk liquid membranes (BLM), supported liquid membranes (SLM) and emulsion liquid membranes (ELM). Designing hybrid variants is very topical, with the main purpose of increasing the flow of substance through the membrane but also of improving the selectivity. This paper presents the operational limits of some kind of hybrid membrane constituted as a bulk liquid membrane (BLM), but which works by dispersing the aqueous source (SP) and receiving (RP) phases, with the membrane itself being a dispersion of nanoparticles in an organic solvent (NP–OSM). The approached operational parameters were the volume of phases of the hybrid membrane system, the thickness of the liquid membrane, the working temperature, the flow of aqueous phases, the droplet size of the aqueous phases dispersed across the membrane, the nature and concentration of nanoparticles in the membrane, the pH difference between the aqueous phases, the nature of the organic solvent, the salt concentration in the aqueous phases and the nature of transported chemical species. For this study, silver ion (SI) and p-nitrophenol (PNP) were chosen as transportable chemical species, the n-aliphatic alcohols (C₆…C₁₂) as membrane organic solvents, 10–undecenoic acid (UDAc) and 10-undecylenic alcohol (UDAl) as carriers and magnetic iron oxides as nanoparticles dispersed in the membrane phase. Under the experimentally established operating conditions, separation efficiencies of over 90% were obtained for both ionic and molecular chemical species (silver ions and p-nitrophenol). The results showed the possibility of increasing the flow of transported chemical species by almost 10 times for the silver ion and approximately 100 times for p-nitrophenol, through the appropriate choice of operational parameters, but they also exposed their limits in relation to the stability of the membrane system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 3251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Flux Prediction in Direct Contact Membrane Distillation Subject to Inorganic Fouling

by Francisco Suárez, María B. del Río and Jazmín E. Aravena

Membranes 2022, 12(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020157 - 28 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4131

Abstract

Freshwater is a limited resource, which has driven the development of new purification and water-reuse technologies. One promising technology for water treatment is membrane distillation (MD). One of the main problems of MD, and of many desalination technologies, is membrane fouling, which reduces [...] Read more.

Freshwater is a limited resource, which has driven the development of new purification and water-reuse technologies. One promising technology for water treatment is membrane distillation (MD). One of the main problems of MD, and of many desalination technologies, is membrane fouling, which reduces the performance of the membrane. This work presents a mathematical model that aims to predict distillate fluxes in direct-contact MD when fouling occurs as salts are deposited onto the membrane surface, forming an inorganic fouling layer. The mathematical model uses a heat- and mass-transfer formulation for prediction of the distillate flux under steady state conditions, and it is combined with the cake-filtration theory to represent the distillate fluxes after the onset of membrane fouling. Model results agree well with experimental observation of distillate fluxes, both before (~12–14 kg m⁻² h⁻¹) and after the onset of membrane fouling, with root-mean-square errors smaller than 1.4 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ in all the experiments. These results suggest that the cake-filtration theory can be used to represent water flux decline in MD membranes prone to inorganic fouling. From our experiments and from the modelling exercise, we found that the onset of membrane failure was relatively constant; the precipitation reaction constant is conditioned by the physicochemical interaction between the feed solution and the membrane; and the rate of flux decline after membrane fouling depends on flow conditions as well as on the precipitation compound. However, the proposed model has limitations that must be addressed in future investigations to validate it under a wider range of operating conditions, for membranes composed by other materials and with different feed solutions to address organic, biological, and/or colloidal fouling, which typically occur under real conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 8764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Osmium Recovery as Membrane Nanomaterials through 10–Undecenoic Acid Reduction Method

by Paul Constantin Albu, Andreea Ferencz (Dinu), Hussam Nadum Abdalraheem Al-Ani, Szidonia-Katalin Tanczos, Ovidiu Oprea, Vlad-Alexandru Grosu, Gheorghe Nechifor, Simona Gabriela Bungău, Alexandra Raluca Grosu, Alexandru Goran and Aurelia Cristina Nechifor

Membranes 2022, 12(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12010051 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2379

Abstract

The recovery of osmium from residual osmium tetroxide (OsO₄) is a necessity imposed by its high toxicity, but also by the technical-economic value of metallic osmium. An elegant and extremely useful method is the recovery of osmium as a membrane catalytic [...] Read more.

The recovery of osmium from residual osmium tetroxide (OsO₄) is a necessity imposed by its high toxicity, but also by the technical-economic value of metallic osmium. An elegant and extremely useful method is the recovery of osmium as a membrane catalytic material, in the form of nanoparticles obtained on a polymeric support. The subject of the present study is the realization of a composite membrane in which the polymeric matrix is the polypropylene hollow fiber, and the active component consists of the osmium nanoparticles obtained by reducing an alcoholic solution of osmium tetroxides directly on the polymeric support. The method of reducing osmium tetroxide on the polymeric support is based on the use of 10-undecenoic acid (10–undecylenic acid) (UDA) as a reducing agent. The osmium tetroxide was solubilized in t–butanol and the reducing agent, 10–undecenoic acid (UDA), in i–propanol, t–butanol or n–decanol solution. The membranes containing osmium nanoparticles (Os–NP) were characterized morphologically by the following: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution SEM (HR–SEM), structurally: energy-dispersive spectroscopy analysis (EDAX), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In terms of process performance, thermal gravimetric analysis was performed by differential scanning calorimetry (TGA, DSC) and in a redox reaction of an organic marker, p–nitrophenol (PNP) to p–aminophenol (PAP). The catalytic reduction reaction with sodium tetraborate solution of PNP to PAP yielded a constant catalytic rate between 2.04 × 10⁻⁴ mmol s⁻¹ and 8.05 × 10⁻⁴ mmol s⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4508 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhancing Absorption Performance of CO₂ by Amine Solution through the Spiral Wired Channel in Concentric Circular Membrane Contactors

by Chii-Dong Ho, Hsuan Chang, Guan-Hong Lin and Thiam Leng Chew

Membranes 2022, 12(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12010004 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2968

Abstract

The CO₂ absorption rate by using a Monoethanolamide (MEA) solution through the spiral wired channel in concentric circular membrane contactors under both concurrent-flow and countercurrent-flow operations was investigated experimentally and theoretically. The one-dimensional mathematical modeling equation developed for predicting the absorption rate [...] Read more.

The CO₂ absorption rate by using a Monoethanolamide (MEA) solution through the spiral wired channel in concentric circular membrane contactors under both concurrent-flow and countercurrent-flow operations was investigated experimentally and theoretically. The one-dimensional mathematical modeling equation developed for predicting the absorption rate and concentration distributions was solved numerically using the fourth Runge–Kutta method under various absorbent flow rate, CO₂ feed flow rate and inlet CO₂ concentration in the gas feed. An economical viewpoint of the spiral wired module was examined by assessing both absorption flux improvement and power consumption increment. Meanwhile, the correlated average Sherwood number to predict the mass-transfer coefficient of the CO₂ absorption mechanisms in a concentric circular membrane contactor with the spiral wired annulus channel is also obtained in a generalized and simplified expression. The theoretical predictions of absorption flux improvement were validated by experimental results in good agreements. The amine solution flowing through the annulus of a concentric circular tube, which was inserted in a tight-fitting spiral wire in a small annular spacing, could enhance the CO₂ absorption flux improvement due to reduction of the concentration polarization effect. A larger concentration polarization coefficient (CPC) was achieved in the countercurrent-flow operations than that in concurrent-flow operations for various operations conditions and spiral-wire pitches. The absorption flux improvement for inserting spiral wire in the concentric circular module could provide the maximum relative increment up to 46.45%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 7039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transport and Separation of the Silver Ion with n–decanol Liquid Membranes Based on 10–undecylenic Acid, 10–undecen–1–ol and Magnetic Nanoparticles

by Gheorghe Nechifor, Florentina Mihaela Păncescu, Paul Constantin Albu, Alexandra Raluca Grosu, Ovidiu Oprea, Szidonia-Katalin Tanczos, Constantin Bungău, Vlad-Alexandru Grosu, Mihail-Răzvan Ioan and Aurelia Cristina Nechifor

Membranes 2021, 11(12), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11120936 - 27 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2264

Abstract

This paper presents a transport and recovery of silver ions through bulk liquid membranes based on n–decanol using as carriers 10–undecylenic acid and 10–undecylenyl alcohol. The transport of silver ions across membranes has been studied in the presence of two types of [...] Read more.

This paper presents a transport and recovery of silver ions through bulk liquid membranes based on n–decanol using as carriers 10–undecylenic acid and 10–undecylenyl alcohol. The transport of silver ions across membranes has been studied in the presence of two types of magnetic oxide nanoparticles obtained by the electrochemical method with iron electrodes in the electrolyte with and without silver ions, which act as promoters of turbulence in the membrane. Separation of silver ions by bulk liquid membranes using 10–undecylenic acid and 10–undecylenyl alcohol as carriers were performed by comparison with lead ions. The configuration of the separation module has been specially designed for the chosen separation process. Convective-generating magnetic nanoparticles were characterized in terms of the morphological and structural points of view: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution SEM (HR–SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis (EDAX), Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry and magnetization. The process performance (flux and selectivity) was tested were tested for silver ion transport and separation through n–decanol liquid membranes with selected carriers. Under the conditions of the optimized experimental results (pH = 7 of the source phase, pH = 1 of the receiving phase, flow rate of 30 mL/min for the source phase and 9 mL/min for the receiving phase, 150 rot/min agitation of magnetic nanoparticles) separation efficiencies of silver ions of over 90% were obtained for the transport of undecenoic acid and about 80% for undecylenyl alcohol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 5444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Poly(styrene-co-butadiene)/Maghnia-Organo-Montmorillonite Clay Nanocomposite. Preparation, Properties and Application as Membrane in the Separation of Methanol/Toluene Azeotropic Mixture by Pervaporation

by Amina Allel, Hassiba Benguergoura, Mohamed Wahib Naceur, Alain Ledoux, Waseem Sharaf Saeed and Taïeb Aouak

Membranes 2021, 11(12), 921; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11120921 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2133

Abstract

In order to improve the thermal and mechanical properties of poly(styrene-co-butadiene) (SBR) to use it as a pervaporation membrane in the separation of the azeotropic mixture toluene/methanol, poly(styrene-co-butadiene) crosslinked Maghnia-organo-montmonrillonite (CSBR/OMMT), a nanocomposite of different compositions was first prepared by a solvent casting [...] Read more.

In order to improve the thermal and mechanical properties of poly(styrene-co-butadiene) (SBR) to use it as a pervaporation membrane in the separation of the azeotropic mixture toluene/methanol, poly(styrene-co-butadiene) crosslinked Maghnia-organo-montmonrillonite (CSBR/OMMT), a nanocomposite of different compositions was first prepared by a solvent casting method. SBR was crosslinked in situ in the presence of OMMT nanoparticles by an efficient vulcanization technique using sulfur as a crosslinking agent and zinc diethyldithiocarbamate as a catalyst. The structure and morphology of the hybrid materials obtained were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscope analysis. The thermal properties of these hybrid materials were studied by differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis/thermal differential analysis. The mechanical properties were studied by strength measurements. The results obtained occurred when the OMMT was incorporated in the CSBR matrix; a significant increase in the glass transition temperature of the SBR was observed which passed from −27 °C for virgin SBR to −21.5 °C for that containing 12 wt% of OMMT. The addition of OMMT nanoparticles to CSBR also improved the mechanical properties of this copolymer. When the OMMT content in the CSBR varied from 0 to 15% by weight, the tensile strength, the elongation at the nose and the modulus at 100% elongation increased from 3.45 to 6.25 MPa, from 162, 17 to 347.20% and 1.75 to 3.0 MPa, respectively. The results of pervaporation revealed that when the OMMT content varied between 3% and 12%, a significant increase in the total flux, the separation factor and the separation index by pervaporation increased from 260.67 to g m⁻² h⁻¹, 0.31 to 1.43, and 0.47 to 113.81 g m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Membrane Separation Techniques: Advances, Challenges, and Future Avenues

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (11 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI