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Metals
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Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming
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Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 March 2025 | Viewed by 8734

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Gang Fang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Interests: metal forming; ductile damage and fracture; elastocaloric cooling of shape memory alloys; additive manufacturing
Prof. Dr. Chaoyang Sun

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing 100083, China
Interests: multi-scale mechanical behavior; plasticity theory and application; hot extrusion; lightweight forming

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, new forming processes are constantly emerging, and modeling/simulation plays an important role in the research into metal forming. In-depth research into the deformation mechanism, microstructure evolution, stress and strain, shape, defects, damage, and fracturing during metal forming is needed through experimental or multi-scale modeling/simulation. The goal of this Special Issue is to publish original, important, and well-developed research papers that focus on modeling/simulation and experiments in metal forming.

In this Special Issue, we welcome the latest research on metal forming. Appropriate topics include but are not limited to the following: sheet metal forming, forging, extrusion, drawing, rolling, or special forming processes and numerical simulations (the finite element method, cellular automaton, the phase field method, etc.); microstructure evolution and control; constitutive behavior; the mechanical properties of deformed materials; and the optimization of process conditions.

Prof. Dr. Gang Fang
Prof. Dr. Chaoyang Sun
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • metal forming
  • modeling and simulation
  • defects
  • microstructure
  • damage
  • fractures
  • finite element method
  • cellular automaton
  • phase field
  • optimization

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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29 pages, 20537 KiB  
Article
Formability Assessment Based on Q-Value for Optimizing the Deep Drawing Process of Automotive Parts Made from Aluminum Alloys Sheet
by Jidapa Leelaseat, Aekkapon Sunanta and Surasak Suranuntchai
Metals 2025, 15(1), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15010068 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 521
Abstract
This paper presents a novel Q-value-based formability assessment for optimizing deep drawing processes. The Q-value, derived from thinning limit diagrams (TLDs), uses offset thinning and wrinkling limit curves to define severity levels. It is calculated by summing the product of Pascal’s triangle weighting [...] Read more.
This paper presents a novel Q-value-based formability assessment for optimizing deep drawing processes. The Q-value, derived from thinning limit diagrams (TLDs), uses offset thinning and wrinkling limit curves to define severity levels. It is calculated by summing the product of Pascal’s triangle weighting factors and normalized element counts within each severity level. The effectiveness of this Q-value assessment was demonstrated using experimentally validated finite element analysis (FEA) to optimize blank size, tool geometry, and drawbead design (male bead height and contra-bead radius) for a deep-drawn AA5754-O automotive fuel tank. Validation of FEA results with experimental thickness measurements showed that the Barlat and Lian 1989 yield criterion provided higher accuracy than Hill’s 1948 model. An optimal condition, determined using the Q-value, consists of a 430 mm × 525 mm blank formed by a redesigned tool cooperated with optimized semi-circular drawbead geometries, achieving experimental significant formability improvements by minimizing wrinkling and thinning. During optimization, this study revealed a significant interaction between blank width and length, which influenced formability. Side-wall wrinkles were attributed to insufficient tool support for the blank during forming and were relieved through tool redesign. Furthermore, increasing the male drawbead height effectively reduced wrinkling but led to increased thinning, whereas increasing the contra-bead radius had the opposite effect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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19 pages, 10590 KiB  
Article
Miniature Tensile and Small Punch Testing: Mechanical Performance and Application in Hydrogen Embrittlement Analysis
by Ping Tao, Wei Zhou, Xinting Miao, Jian Peng and Xuedong Liu
Metals 2024, 14(10), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14101104 - 26 Sep 2024
Viewed by 991
Abstract
The utilization of micro-sample testing has demonstrated its effectiveness in conducting quantitative research on mechanical properties, damage evolutions and fracture features. For in-service equipment, millimicron sampling allows for non-destructive testing and analysis of mechanical performance evolution during operation. This paper presents a comparative [...] Read more.
The utilization of micro-sample testing has demonstrated its effectiveness in conducting quantitative research on mechanical properties, damage evolutions and fracture features. For in-service equipment, millimicron sampling allows for non-destructive testing and analysis of mechanical performance evolution during operation. This paper presents a comparative study of the miniature uniaxial tensile test (MUTT) and small punch test (SPT) by experimental and finite element methods. As a comparison, the standard conventional-size tensile tests were also carried out. Detailed analyses of the elastoplastic behaviors and damage evolutions of MUTT and SPT were presented, followed by an application case illustrating the characterization of hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity based on MUTT and SPT. An inverse finite element modeling method of load–displacement curve reproduction was used to calibrate the variations of damage parameters of hydrogen-charged MUTT and SPT specimens. Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) indexes were determined by using different calculation methods. The results reveal that the HE sensitivity estimated by MUTT is higher than that measured by SPT, which is related to the different deformation processes and strain rates of the two testing methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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15 pages, 3039 KiB  
Article
A First-Principles Study of the Structural, Elastic, and Mechanical Characteristics of Mg2Ni Subjected to Pressure Conditions
by Chuncai Xiao, Lei Liu, Shihuan Liu, Zhangli Lai, Yuxin Liu, Xianshi Zeng and Luliang Liao
Metals 2024, 14(7), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14070789 - 5 Jul 2024
Viewed by 865
Abstract
This study employs first-principles calculations to examine structural, elastic, and mechanistic relationships of Mg2Ni alloys under varying conditions of pressure. The investigation encompasses Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and anisotropy index, as well as sound velocity, Debye temperature, [...] Read more.
This study employs first-principles calculations to examine structural, elastic, and mechanistic relationships of Mg2Ni alloys under varying conditions of pressure. The investigation encompasses Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and anisotropy index, as well as sound velocity, Debye temperature, and related properties. Our findings indicate that the lattice parameters of Mg2Ni in its ground state are in agreement with values obtained experimentally and from the literature, confirming the reliability of the calculated results. Furthermore, a gradual decrease in the values of the lattice parameters a/a0 and c/c0 is observed with increasing pressure. Specifically, the values for C13 and C33 decrease at a hydrostatic pressure of 5 GPa, while C11 and C13 increase when the external hydrostatic pressure exceeds 5 GPa. All other elastic constants exhibit a consistent increasing trend with increasing pressure between 0 and 30 GPa, with C11 and C12 increasing at a faster rate than C44 and C66. In the 0–30 GPa pressure range, Mg2Ni satisfies the mechanical stability criterion, indicating its stable existence under these conditions. Additionally, the Poisson’s ratio of Mg2Ni consistently exceeds 0.26 over a range of pressures from 0 to 30 GPa, signifying ductility and demonstrating consistency with the value of B/G. The hardness of Mg2Ni increases within the pressure range of 0–5 GPa, but decreases above 5 GPa. Notably, the shear anisotropy of Mg2Ni exhibits greater significance than the compressive anisotropy, with its anisotropy intensifying under higher pressures. Both the sound anisotropy and the Debye temperature of Mg2Ni demonstrate an increasing trend with rising pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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14 pages, 4472 KiB  
Article
Design and Mechanical Performance Evaluation of WE43 Magnesium Alloy Biodegradable Stents via Finite Element Analysis
by Jiaxuan Chen, Fang Dong and Sheng Liu
Metals 2024, 14(6), 704; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14060704 - 14 Jun 2024
Viewed by 1582
Abstract
The emergence of biodegradable stents addresses the limitations of the long-term presence of permanent bare metal stents in the human body. Following implantation, these stents can significantly reduce the occurrence of chronic complications such as inflammation and thrombosis, thus becoming a mainstream approach [...] Read more.
The emergence of biodegradable stents addresses the limitations of the long-term presence of permanent bare metal stents in the human body. Following implantation, these stents can significantly reduce the occurrence of chronic complications such as inflammation and thrombosis, thus becoming a mainstream approach in the treatment of interventional cardiovascular diseases. Currently, the materials used for biodegradable stents are typically polymers. However, the inherent properties of the materials dictate that polymer stents exhibit lower mechanical performance and biocompatibility. Magnesium alloy materials, on the basis of their biodegradability, exhibit superior mechanical performance when compared to polymers, possessing the potential to address this issue. However, the presence of stress concentration in the stent structure necessitates further designs and mechanical performance analyses of magnesium alloy stents. In this work, a biodegradable stent based on WE43 alloy is designed. The stent incorporates the micro-protrusion structure to enhance the mechanical performance. Furthermore, to evaluate the clinical applicability of the stent, the mechanical performance of the biodegradable magnesium alloy stent is conducted through finite element analysis (FEA). The results show that the maximum equivalent stress in all four aspects is below the ultimate tensile strength of 370 MPa for the WE43 magnesium alloy, demonstrating excellent mechanical performance. Additionally, after crimping and expansion, the radial support strength and radial support force reached 780 mN/mm and 1.56 N, respectively. Compared to the advanced reported stent structures, the radial support strength and radial support force are enhanced by 13% and 47%, respectively. Additionally, flexibility analysis indicated that the flexibility of the stent design in this study is improved by a factor of 9.76, ensuring the stent’s capability to navigate through complex vasculature during implantation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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18 pages, 16765 KiB  
Article
Study of the Dynamic Recrystallization Behavior of Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Zr Alloy Based on Experiments and Cellular Automaton Simulation
by Mei Cheng, Xingchen Wu and Zhimin Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(5), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050570 - 12 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1534
Abstract
The exploration of the relationship between process parameters and grain evolution during the thermal deformation of rare-earth magnesium alloys using simulation software has significant implications for enhancing research and development efficiency and advancing the large-scale engineering application of high-performance rare-earth magnesium alloys. Through [...] Read more.
The exploration of the relationship between process parameters and grain evolution during the thermal deformation of rare-earth magnesium alloys using simulation software has significant implications for enhancing research and development efficiency and advancing the large-scale engineering application of high-performance rare-earth magnesium alloys. Through single-pass hot compression experiments, this study obtained high-temperature flow stress curves for rare-earth magnesium alloys, analyzing the variation patterns of these curves and the softening mechanism of the materials. Drawing on physical metallurgical theories, such as the evolution of dislocation density during dynamic recrystallization, recrystallization nucleation, and grain growth, the authors of this paper establish a cellular automaton model to simulate the dynamic recrystallization process by tracking the sole internal variable—the evolution of dislocation density within cells. This model was developed through the secondary development of the DEFORM-3D finite element software. The results indicate that the model established in this study accurately simulates the evolution process of grain growth during heat treatment and the dynamic recrystallization microstructure during the thermal deformation of rare-earth magnesium alloys. The simulated results align well with relevant theories and metallographic experimental results, enabling the simulation of the dynamic recrystallization microstructure and grain size prediction during the deformation process of rare-earth magnesium alloys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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Review

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33 pages, 21111 KiB  
Review
A Review on Sheet Metal Forming Behavior in High-Strength Steels and the Use of Numerical Simulations
by Luis Fernando Folle, Tiago Nunes Lima, Matheus Passos Sarmento Santos, Bruna Callegari, Bruno Caetano dos Santos Silva, Luiz Gustavo Souza Zamorano and Rodrigo Santiago Coelho
Metals 2024, 14(12), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14121428 - 13 Dec 2024
Viewed by 888
Abstract
High-strength steels such as Dual Phase (DP), Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP), and Twinning-Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steels have gained importance in automotive applications due to the potential for weight reduction and increased performance in crash tests. However, as resistance increases, there is also an increase [...] Read more.
High-strength steels such as Dual Phase (DP), Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP), and Twinning-Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steels have gained importance in automotive applications due to the potential for weight reduction and increased performance in crash tests. However, as resistance increases, there is also an increase in springback due to residual stresses after the forming process. This is mainly because of the greater elastic region of these materials and other factors associated with strain hardening, such as the Bauschinger effect, that brings theory of kinematic hardening to mathematical modeling. This means that finite element software must consider these properties so that the simulation can accurately predict the behavior. Currently, this knowledge is still not widespread since it has never been used in conventional materials. Additionally, engineers and researchers use the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) curve in their studies. However, it does not fully represent the actual failure limit of materials, especially in high-strength materials. Based on this, the Fracture Forming Limit Diagram (FFLD) curve has emerged, which proposes to resolve these limitations. Thus, this review aims to focus on how finite element methods consider all these factors in their modeling, especially when it comes to the responses of high-strength steels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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33 pages, 7753 KiB  
Review
State-of-the-Art Review of the Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization
by Xin Liu, Jiachen Zhu, Yuying He, Hongbin Jia, Binzhou Li and Gang Fang
Metals 2024, 14(11), 1230; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14111230 - 28 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1502
Abstract
The evolution of microstructures during the hot working of metallic materials determines their workability and properties. Recrystallization is an important softening mechanism in material forming that has been extensively researched in recent decades. This paper comprehensively reviews the basic methods and their applications [...] Read more.
The evolution of microstructures during the hot working of metallic materials determines their workability and properties. Recrystallization is an important softening mechanism in material forming that has been extensively researched in recent decades. This paper comprehensively reviews the basic methods and their applications in numerical simulations of dynamic recrystallization (DRX). The advantages and shortcomings of simulation methods are evaluated. Mean field models are used to implicitly describe the DRX process and are embedded into a finite element (FE) program for forming. These models provide recrystallization volume fraction and average grain size in the FE results without requiring extra computational resources. However, they do not accurately describe the microphysical mechanism, leading to a lower simulation accuracy. On the other hand, full field methods explicitly predict grain topology on a mesoscopic scale, fully considering the microscopic physical mechanism. This enhances the simulation accuracy but requires a significant amount of computational resources. Recently, the coupling of full field methods with polycrystal plasticity models and precipitation models has rapidly developed, considering more influencing factors of recrystallization on a microscale. Furthermore, integration with evolving machine learning methods has the potential to significantly improve the accuracy and efficiency of recrystallization simulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Experimental Studies in Metal Forming)
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