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Micromachines
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Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems
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Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems

A special issue of Micromachines (ISSN 2072-666X).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2017) | Viewed by 62367

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Peer Fischer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Interests: micro and nanorobotics; 3D nanofabrication; light-matter interaction; actuation using electric; magnetic and acoustic fields; ultrasound; symmetry breaking; chirality; molecular systems engineering
Dr. Stefano Palagi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, D. 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Dr. Tian Qiu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, D. 70569 Stuttgart, Germany

Special Issue Information

Locomotion at small scales is an active, multidisciplinary area of research due to the immense potential of artificial mobile microdevices for future minimally-invasive medicine, environmental monitoring, and distributed search and rescue applications, etc. The challenges faced in realizing these technologies are manifold, as design strategies that are different from the engineering solutions that have been devised at large scales are needed for the actuation, powering, and control of mobile microsystems. Indeed, locomotion at small scales, including swimming, crawling and flying, often relies on counterintuitive and unexpected physics and requires the development of novel materials and technological solutions. For this reason, scientists and engineers often look to nature for inspiration. This has led to microswimmers that mimic bacterial flagella and ciliates, or miniaturized flying robots inspired by bees. At the same time, biologists gain new insight from experiments performed on artificial mobile micromachines, which serve as simplified model systems to test theories. To better understand locomotion at small scales and in order to develop novel, more capable mobile micromachines with real-world applications, truly multidisciplinary questions must be addressed. Accordingly, this Special Issue seeks to bring together research papers, short communications, and review articles addressing both fundamental questions and technological developments related to swimming, crawling, flying, propulsion etc. at small scales.

Prof. Dr. Peer Fischer
Dr. Stefano Palagi
Dr. Tian Qiu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Micromachines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • micro- and nanorobotics

  • microswimmers

  • low Reynolds number

  • mobile devices

  • actuators

  • autonomous motion

  • smart materials

  • swarm robotics

  • soft robotics

  • biomedical

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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3278 KiB  
Article
A Viscosity-Based Model for Bubble-Propelled Catalytic Micromotors
by Zhen Wang, Qingjia Chi, Lisheng Liu, Qiwen Liu, Tao Bai and Qiang Wang
Micromachines 2017, 8(7), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi8070198 - 23 Jun 2017
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4675
Abstract
Micromotors have shown significant potential for diverse future applications. However, a poor understanding of the propelling mechanism hampers its further applications. In this study, an accurate mechanical model of the micromotor has been proposed by considering the geometric asymmetry and fluid viscosity based [...] Read more.
Micromotors have shown significant potential for diverse future applications. However, a poor understanding of the propelling mechanism hampers its further applications. In this study, an accurate mechanical model of the micromotor has been proposed by considering the geometric asymmetry and fluid viscosity based on hydrodynamic principles. The results obtained from the proposed model are in a good agreement with the experimental results. The effects of the semi-cone angle on the micromotor are re-analyzed. Furthermore, other geometric parameters, like the length-radius aspect ratio, exert great impact on the velocity. It is also observed that micromotors travel much slower in highly viscous solutions and, hence, viscosity plays an important role. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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3073 KiB  
Review
How to Make a Fast, Efficient Bubble-Driven Micromotor: A Mechanical View
by Lisheng Liu, Tao Bai, Qingjia Chi, Zhen Wang, Shuang Xu, Qiwen Liu and Qiang Wang
Micromachines 2017, 8(9), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi8090267 - 30 Aug 2017
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 8548
Abstract
Micromotors, which can be moved at a micron scale, have special functions and can perform microscopic tasks. They have a wide range of applications in various fields with the advantages of small size and high efficiency. Both high speed and efficiency for micromotors [...] Read more.
Micromotors, which can be moved at a micron scale, have special functions and can perform microscopic tasks. They have a wide range of applications in various fields with the advantages of small size and high efficiency. Both high speed and efficiency for micromotors are required in various conditions. However, the dynamical mechanism of bubble-driven micromotors movement is not clear, owing to various factors affecting the movement of micromotors. This paper reviews various factors acting on micromotor movement, and summarizes appropriate methods to improve the velocity and efficiency of bubble-driven micromotors, from a mechanical view. The dynamical factors that have significant influence on the hydrodynamic performance of micromotors could be divided into two categories: environment and geometry. Improving environment temperature and decreasing viscosity of fluid accelerate the velocity of motors. Under certain conditions, raising the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is applied. However, a high concentration of hydrogen peroxide is not applicable. In the environment of low concentration, changing the geometry of micromotors is an effective mean to improve the velocity of micromotors. Increasing semi-cone angle and reducing the ratio of length to radius for tubular and rod micromotors are propitious to increase the speed of micromotors. For Janus micromotors, reducing the mass by changing the shape into capsule and shell, and increasing the surface roughness, is applied. This review could provide references for improving the velocity and efficiency of micromotors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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6288 KiB  
Article
Exploiting Stretchable Metallic Springs as Compliant Electrodes for Cylindrical Dielectric Elastomer Actuators (DEAs)
by Chien-Hao Liu, Po-Wen Lin, Jui-An Chen, Yi-Tsung Lee and Yuan-Ming Chang
Micromachines 2017, 8(11), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi8110339 - 22 Nov 2017
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5061
Abstract
In recent years, dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) have been widely used in soft robots and artificial bio-medical applications. Most DEAs are composed of a thin dielectric elastomer layer sandwiched between two compliant electrodes. DEAs vary in their design to provide bending, torsional, and [...] Read more.
In recent years, dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) have been widely used in soft robots and artificial bio-medical applications. Most DEAs are composed of a thin dielectric elastomer layer sandwiched between two compliant electrodes. DEAs vary in their design to provide bending, torsional, and stretch/contraction motions under the application of high external voltages. Most compliant electrodes are made of carbon powders or thin metallic films. In situations involving large deformations or improper fabrication, the electrodes are susceptible to breakage and increased resistivity. The worst cases result in a loss of conductivity and functional failure. In this study, we developed a method by which to exploit stretchable metallic springs as compliant electrodes for cylindrical DEAs. This design was inspired by the extensibility of mechanical springs. The main advantage of this approach is the fact that the metallic spring-like compliant electrodes remain conductive and do not increase the stiffness as the tube-like DEAs elongate in the axial direction. This can be attributed to a reduction in thickness in the radial direction. The proposed cylindrical structure is composed of highly-stretchable VHB 4905 film folded within a hollow tube and then sandwiched between copper springs (inside and outside) to allow for stretching and contraction in the axial direction under the application of high DC voltages. We fabricated a prototype and evaluated the mechanical and electromechanical properties of the device experimentally using a high-voltage source of 9.9 kV. This device demonstrated a non-linear increase in axial stretching with an increase in applied voltage, reaching a maximum extension of 0.63 mm (axial strain of 2.35%) at applied voltage of 9.9 kV. Further miniaturization and the incorporation of compressive springs are expected to allow the implementation of the proposed method in soft micro-robots and bio-mimetic applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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3665 KiB  
Article
Swimming Characteristics of Bioinspired Helical Microswimmers Based on Soft Lotus-Root Fibers
by Jia Liu, Tiantian Xu, Yanming Guan, Xiaohui Yan, Chengwei Ye and Xinyu Wu
Micromachines 2017, 8(12), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi8120349 - 30 Nov 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6432
Abstract
Various kinds of helical swimmers inspired by E. coli bacteria have been developed continually in many types of researches, but most of them are proposed by the rigid bodies. For the targeted drug delivery, the rigid body may hurt soft tissues of the [...] Read more.
Various kinds of helical swimmers inspired by E. coli bacteria have been developed continually in many types of researches, but most of them are proposed by the rigid bodies. For the targeted drug delivery, the rigid body may hurt soft tissues of the working region with organs. Due to this problem, the biomedical applications of helical swimmers may be restricted. However, the helical microswimmers with the soft and deformable body are appropriate and highly adaptive in a confined environment. Thus, this paper presents a lotus-root-based helical microswimmer, which is fabricated by the fibers of lotus-root coated with magnetic nanoparticles to active under the magnetic fields. The helical microstructures are derived from the intrinsic biological structures of the fibers of the lotus-root. This paper aims to study the swimming characteristic of lotus-root-based microswimmers with deformable helical bodies. In the initial step under the uniform magnetic actuation, the helical microswimmers are bent lightly due to the heterogeneous distribution of the internal stress, and then they undergo a swimming motion which is a spindle-like rotation locomotion. Our experiments report that the microswimmers with soft bodies can locomote faster than those with rigid bodies. Moreover, we also find that the curvature of the shape decreases as a function of actuating field frequency which is related to the deformability of lotus-root fibers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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3144 KiB  
Article
The Multitasking System of Swarm Robot based on Null-Space-Behavioral Control Combined with Fuzzy Logic
by Nga Le Thi Thuy and Thang Nguyen Trong
Micromachines 2017, 8(12), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi8120357 - 9 Dec 2017
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4597
Abstract
A swarm robot is a collection of large numbers of simple robots used to perform complex tasks that a single robot cannot perform or only perform ineffectively. The swarm robot works successfully only when the cooperation mechanism among individual robots is satisfied. The [...] Read more.
A swarm robot is a collection of large numbers of simple robots used to perform complex tasks that a single robot cannot perform or only perform ineffectively. The swarm robot works successfully only when the cooperation mechanism among individual robots is satisfied. The cooperation mechanism studied in this article ensures the formation and the distance between each pair of individual robots while moving to their destination while avoiding obstacles. The solved problems in this article include; controlling the suction/thrust force between each pair of individual robots in the swarm based on the fuzzy logic structure of the Singer-Input-Singer-Output under Mamdani law; demonstrating the stability of the system based on the Lyapunov theory; and applying control to the multitasking system of the swarm robot based on Null-Space-Behavioral control. Finally, the simulation results make certain that all the individual robots assemble after moving and avoid obstacles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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3603 KiB  
Article
The Optimal Locomotion of a Self-Propelled Worm Actuated by Two Square Waves
by Ziwang Jiang and Jian Xu
Micromachines 2017, 8(12), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi8120364 - 16 Dec 2017
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3733
Abstract
Worm-like locomotion at small scales induced by propagating a series of extensive or contraction waves has exhibited enormous possibilities in reproducing artificial mobile soft robotics. However, the optimal relation between locomotion performance and some important parameters, such as the distance between two adjacent [...] Read more.
Worm-like locomotion at small scales induced by propagating a series of extensive or contraction waves has exhibited enormous possibilities in reproducing artificial mobile soft robotics. However, the optimal relation between locomotion performance and some important parameters, such as the distance between two adjacent waves, wave width, and body length, is still not clear. To solve this problem, this paper studies the optimal problem of a worm’s motion induced by two peristalsis waves in a viscous medium. Inspired by a worm’s motion, we consider that its body consists of two segments which can perform the respective shape change. Next, a quasi-static model describing the worm-like locomotion is used to investigate the relationship between its average velocity over the period and these parameters. Through the analysis of the relationship among these parameters, we find that there exist four different cases which should be addressed. Correspondingly, the average velocity in each case can be approximately derived. After that, optimization is carried out on each case to maximize the average velocity according to the Kuhn–Tucker Conditions. As a result, the optimal conditions of all of the cases are obtained. Finally, numerical and experimental verifications are carried out to demonstrate the correctness of the obtained results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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1115 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Tracking of Free-Swimming Paramecium caudatum in Viscous Media Using a Curved Sample Chamber
by Mohiuddin Khan Shourav and Jung Kyung Kim
Micromachines 2018, 9(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9010007 - 28 Dec 2017
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4294
Abstract
It is technically difficult to acquire large-field images under the complexity and cost restrictions of a diagnostic and instant field research purpose. The goal of the introduced large-field imaging system is to achieve a tolerable resolution for detecting microscale particles or objects in [...] Read more.
It is technically difficult to acquire large-field images under the complexity and cost restrictions of a diagnostic and instant field research purpose. The goal of the introduced large-field imaging system is to achieve a tolerable resolution for detecting microscale particles or objects in the entire image field without the field-curvature effect, while maintaining a cost-effective procedure and simple design. To use a single commercial lens for imaging a large field, the design attempts to fabricate a curved microfluidic chamber. This imaging technique improves the field curvature and distortion at an acceptable level of particle detection. This study examines Paramecium caudatum microswimmers to track their motion dynamics in different viscous media with imaging techniques. In addition, the study found that the average speed for P. caudatum was 60 µm/s, with a standard deviation of ±12 µm/s from microscopic imaging of the original medium of the sample, which leads to a variation of 20% from the average measurement. In contrast, from large-field imaging, the average speeds of P. caudatum were 63 µm/s and 68 µm/s in the flat and curved chambers, respectively, with the same medium viscosity. Furthermore, the standard deviations that were observed were ±7 µm/s and ±4 µm/s and the variations from the average speed were calculated as 11% and 5.8% for the flat and curved chambers, respectively. The proposed methodology can be applied to measure the locomotion of the microswimmer at small scales with high precision. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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5456 KiB  
Article
New MEMS Tweezers for the Viscoelastic Characterization of Soft Materials at the Microscale
by Paolo Di Giamberardino, Alvise Bagolini, Pierluigi Bellutti, Imre J. Rudas, Matteo Verotti, Fabio Botta and Nicola P. Belfiore
Micromachines 2018, 9(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9010015 - 30 Dec 2017
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5943
Abstract
As many studies show, there is a relation between the tissue’s mechanical characteristics and some specific diseases. Knowing this relationship would help early diagnosis or microsurgery. In this paper, a new method for measuring the viscoelastic properties of soft materials at the microscale [...] Read more.
As many studies show, there is a relation between the tissue’s mechanical characteristics and some specific diseases. Knowing this relationship would help early diagnosis or microsurgery. In this paper, a new method for measuring the viscoelastic properties of soft materials at the microscale is proposed. This approach is based on the adoption of a microsystem whose mechanical structure can be reduced to a compliant four bar linkage where the connecting rod is substituted by the tissue sample. A procedure to identify both stiffness and damping coefficients of the tissue is then applied to the developed hardware. Particularly, stiffness is calculated solving the static equations of the mechanism in a desired configuration, while the damping coefficient is inferred from the dynamic equations, which are written under the hypothesis that the sample tissue is excited by a variable compression force characterized by a suitable wave form. The whole procedure is implemented by making use of a control system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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18 pages, 5623 KiB  
Article
Haptic-Based Manipulation Scheme of Magnetic Nanoparticles in a Multi-Branch Blood Vessel for Targeted Drug Delivery
by Vahid Hamdipoor, Muhammad Raheel Afzal, Tuan-Anh Le and Jungwon Yoon
Micromachines 2018, 9(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9010014 - 1 Jan 2018
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6973
Abstract
Magnetic drug targeting is a promising technique that can deliver drugs to the diseased region, while keeping the drug away from healthy parts of body. Introducing a human in the control loop of a targeted drug delivery system and using inherent bilateralism of [...] Read more.
Magnetic drug targeting is a promising technique that can deliver drugs to the diseased region, while keeping the drug away from healthy parts of body. Introducing a human in the control loop of a targeted drug delivery system and using inherent bilateralism of a haptic device at the same time can considerably improve the performance of targeted drug delivery systems. In this paper, we suggest a novel intelligent haptic guidance scheme for steering a number of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) using forbidden region virtual fixtures and a haptic rendering scheme with multi particles. Forbidden region virtual fixtures are a general class of guidance modes implemented in software, which help a human-machine collaborative system accomplish a specific task by constraining a movement into limited regions. To examine the effectiveness of our proposed scheme, we implemented a magnetic guided drug delivery system in a virtual environment using a physics-based model of targeted drug delivery including a multi-branch blood vessel and realistic blood dynamics. We performed user studies with different guidance modes: unguided, semi virtual fixture and full virtual fixture modes. We found out that the efficiency of targeting was significantly improved using the forbidden region virtual fixture and the proposed haptic rendering of MNPs. We can expect that using intelligent haptic feedback in real targeted drug delivery systems can improve the targeting efficiency of MNPs in multi-branch vessels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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11 pages, 1888 KiB  
Review
The Fantastic Voyage of the Trypanosome: A Protean Micromachine Perfected during 500 Million Years of Engineering
by Timothy Krüger and Markus Engstler
Micromachines 2018, 9(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9020063 - 2 Feb 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6812
Abstract
The human body is constantly attacked by pathogens. Various lines of defence have evolved, among which the immune system is principal. In contrast to most pathogens, the African trypanosomes thrive freely in the blood circulation, where they escape immune destruction by antigenic variation [...] Read more.
The human body is constantly attacked by pathogens. Various lines of defence have evolved, among which the immune system is principal. In contrast to most pathogens, the African trypanosomes thrive freely in the blood circulation, where they escape immune destruction by antigenic variation and incessant motility. These unicellular parasites are flagellate microswimmers that also withstand the harsh mechanical forces prevailing in the bloodstream. They undergo complex developmental cycles in the bloodstream and organs of the mammalian host, as well as the disease-transmitting tsetse fly. Each life cycle stage has been shaped by evolution for manoeuvring in distinct microenvironments. Here, we introduce trypanosomes as blueprints for nature-inspired design of trypanobots, micromachines that, in the future, could explore the human body without affecting its physiology. We review cell biological and biophysical aspects of trypanosome motion. While this could provide a basis for the engineering of microbots, their actuation and control still appear more like fiction than science. Here, we discuss potentials and challenges of trypanosome-inspired microswimmer robots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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9 pages, 2371 KiB  
Communication
Photopatternable Magnetic Hollowbots by Nd-Fe-B Nanocomposite for Potential Targeted Drug Delivery Applications
by Hui Li, Jing Chen, Jinjie Zhang, Jingyong Zhang, Guoru Zhao and Lei Wang
Micromachines 2018, 9(4), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9040182 - 13 Apr 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4052
Abstract
In contrast to traditional drug administration, targeted drug delivery can prolong, localize, target and have a protected drug interaction with the diseased tissue. Drug delivery carriers, such as polymeric micelles, liposomes, dendrimers, nanotubes, and so on, are hard to scale-up, costly, and have [...] Read more.
In contrast to traditional drug administration, targeted drug delivery can prolong, localize, target and have a protected drug interaction with the diseased tissue. Drug delivery carriers, such as polymeric micelles, liposomes, dendrimers, nanotubes, and so on, are hard to scale-up, costly, and have short shelf life. Here we show the novel fabrication and characterization of photopatternable magnetic hollow microrobots that can potentially be utilized in microfluidics and drug delivery applications. These magnetic hollowbots can be fabricated using standard ultraviolet (UV) lithography with low cost and easily accessible equipment, which results in them being easy to scale up, and inexpensive to fabricate. Contact-free actuation of freestanding magnetic hollowbots were demonstrated by using an applied 900 G external magnetic field to achieve the movement control in an aqueous environment. According to the movement clip, the average speed of the magnetic hollowbots was estimated to be 1.9 mm/s. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locomotion at Small Scales: From Biology to Artificial Systems)
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