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Microorganisms
Special Issues
Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host
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Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Gut Microbiota".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 41060

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Gaspar Pérez-Martínez

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Guest Editor
Department of Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (Spanish National Research Council), Valencia, Spain
Interests: functional food; molecular microbiology; biotechnology; gut microbiota; probiotics; host-bacteria communication
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Christine Bäuerl

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (Spanish National Research Council), Valencia, Spain
Interests: gut microbiome; host-bacteria interactions; probiotics; postbiotics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The canonical concepts behind the definition of probiotics have remained unaltered for almost 20 years, establishing that probiotics must be well-characterized living microorganisms with proven beneficial effects that are safe to use. Different terms with the “biotic” root are used, referring to their pharmacological role (i.e. pharmabiotics), their target (i.e. psycobiotics) and their joint effect/administration with prebiotics (i.e. symbiotics). There are newer and broader concepts that involve non-living components or their metabolic products (i.e. postbiotics, parabiotics). Besides the terminology, this is one of the most dynamic scientific fields in the area of health and nutrition, which is heavily supported by robust scientific evidence, and where the forefront of omics, bioinformatics and molecular biology techniques has been put to work. Microbiome research works are on their way to overcome classical concepts and they have revealed a number of new bacterial species significantly related to health benefits that are considered the last generation of probiotics.

This Special Issue will be dealing with research works on diverse aspects of the interaction between well-established or new—to be appointed—probiotics with the host; this will include well founded contributions, from preclinical research (in vitro or in vivo assays) to human or animal trials.

As Guest Editors of this Special Issue, we would like to invite you to submit research articles, review articles and short communications dealing with different aspects of the communication between probiotics and the host.

Prof. Gaspar Pérez-Martínez
Prof. Christine Bäuerl
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Probiotics
  • Postbiotics
  • Symbiotics
  • Disease
  • Immune system
  • Gut–brain axis
  • Neurotransmitter
  • Human trial
  • Animal assay
  • Health effect
  • Bacteria–host interaction
  • Proteomics
  • Transcriptomics
  • Metabolomics
  • Metagenomics
  • Gut microbiota

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 1407 KiB  
Article
Ferulic Acid Esterase Producing Lactobacillus johnsonii from Goat Feces as Corn Silage Inoculants
by Estefania Andrada, Mónica Adriana Mechoud, María Claudia Abeijón-Mukdsi, Elsa Patricia Chagra Dib, Santiago Cerviño, Adriana Perez Chaia and Roxana Beatriz Medina
Microorganisms 2022, 10(9), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10091732 - 27 Aug 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2172
Abstract
Ferulic acid esterase (FAE+)-producing lactobacilli are being studied as silage inoculants due to their potential of increasing forage fiber digestibility. In this work, three FAE+ Lactobacillus (L.) johnsonii strains were isolated from caprine feces and characterized according to their potential probiotic characteristics and [...] Read more.
Ferulic acid esterase (FAE+)-producing lactobacilli are being studied as silage inoculants due to their potential of increasing forage fiber digestibility. In this work, three FAE+ Lactobacillus (L.) johnsonii strains were isolated from caprine feces and characterized according to their potential probiotic characteristics and as silage inoculants. Limosilactobacillus fermentum CRL1446, a human probiotic isolated from goat cheese, was also included in the experiments as a potential silage inoculant. FAE activity quantification, probiotic characterization, and growth in maize aqueous extract indicated that L. johnsonii ETC187 might have a better inoculant and probiotic aptitude. Nevertheless, results in whole-corn mini silos indicated that, although acid detergent fiber (ADF) was significantly reduced by this strain (3% compared with the uninoculated (UN) group), L. johnsonii ETC150 and CRL1446 not only induced similar ADF reduction but also reduced dry matter (DM) loss (by 7.3% and 6.5%, respectively) compared with the UN group. Additionally, CRL1446 increased in vitro DM degradability by 10%. All treatments reduced gas losses when compared with the UN group. The potential probiotic features of these strains, as well as their beneficial impact on corn fermentation shown in this study, encourage further studies as enhancers in animal production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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15 pages, 2094 KiB  
Article
Beneficial Shifts in Gut Microbiota by Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus R0011 and Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 in Alcoholic Hepatitis
by Haripriya Gupta, Sung Hun Kim, Seul Ki Kim, Sang Hak Han, Hak Cheol Kwon and Ki Tae Suk
Microorganisms 2022, 10(7), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071474 - 21 Jul 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2738
Abstract
Gut microbiota performs indispensable functions in the pathophysiology of alcoholic hepatitis (AH). We investigated the effects of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus R0011 and Lactobacillus helveticus for gut microbial restoration toward eubiosis in patients with AH. A multicenter, double-blind, and randomized trial was conducted. Probiotics (n [...] Read more.
Gut microbiota performs indispensable functions in the pathophysiology of alcoholic hepatitis (AH). We investigated the effects of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus R0011 and Lactobacillus helveticus for gut microbial restoration toward eubiosis in patients with AH. A multicenter, double-blind, and randomized trial was conducted. Probiotics (n = 44) and placebo (n = 45) groups received, during 7 days, L. rhamnosus R0011/L. helveticus R0052 at 120 mg/day and placebo. All patients were hospitalized to ensure abstinence. Liver function, lipopolysaccharide level, and stool analysis were evaluated in patients before and after 7 days of treatment. At baseline, the dominant bacteria were Gram-negative in both groups which decreased after the probiotics treatment and exhibited a significant reduction in lipopolysaccharide level (p < 0.001). The probiotics ameliorated the Child–Pugh scores (p < 0.001). Furthermore, the probiotics group showed a decline in the levels of alanine aminotransferase and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (p < 0.05). The probiotics changed the gut microbial composition at various taxonomical levels. The proportion of Bacteroidetes (147%) was increased after 7 days of probiotics supplementation while Proteobacteria (30%) and Fusobacteria (0%) were decreased. Administration of L. rhamnosus R0011 and L. helveticus R0052 conceivably associated with restoration of gut microbiome in AH patients and improved AH by modulating the gut–liver axis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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19 pages, 2704 KiB  
Article
Factors Affecting Spontaneous Endocytosis and Survival of Probiotic Lactobacilli in Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells
by Diana Aurora Ramirez-Sánchez, Noemi Navarro-Lleó, Christine Bäuerl, Samuel Campista-León, José María Coll-Marqués and Gaspar Pérez-Martínez
Microorganisms 2022, 10(6), 1142; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10061142 - 31 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2762
Abstract
Mutualistic bacteria have different forms of interaction with the host. In contrast to the invasion of pathogenic bacteria, naturally occurring internalization of commensal bacteria has not been studied in depth. Three in vitro methods, gentamicin protection, flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy, [...] Read more.
Mutualistic bacteria have different forms of interaction with the host. In contrast to the invasion of pathogenic bacteria, naturally occurring internalization of commensal bacteria has not been studied in depth. Three in vitro methods, gentamicin protection, flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy, have been implemented to accurately assess the internalization of two lactobacillus strains—Lacticaseibacillus paracasei BL23 and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG—in Caco-2 and T84 intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) under a variety of physiological conditions and with specific inhibitors. First and most interesting, internalization occurred at a variable rate that depends on the bacterial strain and IEC line, and the most efficient was BL23 internalization by T84 and, second, efficient internalization required active IEC proliferation, as it improved naturally at the early confluence stages and by stimulation with epidermal growth factor (EGF). IFN-γ is bound to innate immune responses and autolysis; this cytokine had a significant effect on internalization, as shown by flow cytometry, but increased internalization was not perceived in all conditions, possibly because it was also stimulating autolysis and, as a consequence, the viability of bacteria after uptake could be affected. Bacterial uptake required actin polymerization, as shown by cytochalasin D inhibition, and it was partially bound to clathrin and caveolin dependent endocytosis. It also showed partial inhibition by ML7 indicating the involvement of cholesterol lipid rafts and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) activation, at least in the LGG uptake by Caco-2. Most interestingly, bacteria remained viable inside the IEC for as long as 72 h without damaging the epithelial cells, and paracellular transcytosis was observed. These results stressed the fact that internalization of commensal and mutualistic bacteria is a natural, nonpathogenic process that may be relevant in crosstalk processes between the intestinal populations and the host, and future studies could determine its connection to processes such as commensal tolerance, resilience of microbial populations or transorganic bacterial migration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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12 pages, 2828 KiB  
Article
Production of Hydroxycarboxylic Acid Receptor 3 (HCA3) Ligands by Bifidobacterium
by Takuma Sakurai, Ayako Horigome, Toshitaka Odamaki, Takashi Shimizu and Jin-Zhong Xiao
Microorganisms 2021, 9(11), 2397; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9112397 - 21 Nov 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3206
Abstract
Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 3 (HCA3) was recently identified in the genomes of humans and other hominids but not in other mammals. We examined the production of HCA3 ligands by Bifidobacterium spp. In addition to 4-hydroxyphenyllactic acid, phenyllactic acid (PLA), and [...] Read more.
Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 3 (HCA3) was recently identified in the genomes of humans and other hominids but not in other mammals. We examined the production of HCA3 ligands by Bifidobacterium spp. In addition to 4-hydroxyphenyllactic acid, phenyllactic acid (PLA), and indole-3-lactic acid (ILA), we found that LeuA was produced by Bifidobacterium as an HCA3 ligand. The four ligands produced were the mixtures of enantiomers, and D-ILA, D-PLA, and D-LeuA showed stronger activity of the HCA3 ligand than their respective L-isomers. However, there was no difference in AhR activity between the two ILA enantiomers. These results provide new insights into the HCA3 ligands produced by Bifidobacterium and suggest the importance of investigating the absolute stereo structures of these metabolites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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15 pages, 2459 KiB  
Article
Alleviation Effects of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis XLTG11 on Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice
by Nana Wang, Song Wang, Baofeng Xu, Fei Liu, Guicheng Huo and Bailiang Li
Microorganisms 2021, 9(10), 2093; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9102093 - 3 Oct 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 2952
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic immune-related disease, which can occur through the dysfunction of the immune system caused by the imbalance of gut microbiota. Previous studies have reported the beneficial effects of Bifidobacterium on colitis, while the related mechanisms behind these [...] Read more.
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic immune-related disease, which can occur through the dysfunction of the immune system caused by the imbalance of gut microbiota. Previous studies have reported the beneficial effects of Bifidobacterium on colitis, while the related mechanisms behind these effects have not been fully elucidated. The aim of our study is to investigate the alleviation effect of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis XLTG11 (B. lactis) on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and its potential mechanism. The results showed that B. lactis XLTG11 significantly decreased weight loss, disease activity index score, colon shortening, myeloperoxide activity, spleen weight, and colon tissue damage. Additionally, B. lactis XLTG11 significantly decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased the level of anti-inflammatory cytokine. Meanwhile, high doses of B. lactis XLTG11 significantly up-regulated the expression of tight junction proteins and inhibited activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MYD88)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway. Furthermore, B. lactis XLTG11 increased the gut microbiota diversity and modulated gut microbiota composition caused by DSS. Moreover, Spearman’s correlation analysis also found that several specific gut microbiota were significantly correlated with colitis-related indicators. These results demonstrated that B. lactis XLTG11 can alleviate DSS-induced colitis by inhibiting the activation of the TLR4/MYD88/NF-κB signaling pathway, regulating inflammatory cytokines, improving intestinal barrier function, and modulating the gut microbiota. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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19 pages, 4064 KiB  
Article
Effects of Live and Pasteurized Forms of Akkermansia from the Human Gut on Obesity and Metabolic Dysregulation
by Yura Choi, Shambhunath Bose, Jaegu Seo, Joo-Hyun Shin, Dokyung Lee, Yesol Kim, Seung Goo Kang and Hojun Kim
Microorganisms 2021, 9(10), 2039; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9102039 - 27 Sep 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3960
Abstract
Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) is a promising probiotic candidate owing to its health-promoting properties. A previous study reported that the pasteurized form of A. muciniphila strains isolated from human stool samples had a beneficial impact on high-fat diet-induced obese mice. On [...] Read more.
Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) is a promising probiotic candidate owing to its health-promoting properties. A previous study reported that the pasteurized form of A. muciniphila strains isolated from human stool samples had a beneficial impact on high-fat diet-induced obese mice. On the other hand, the differences in the probiotic effects between live and pasteurized A. muciniphila on the metabolism and immune system of the host are still inconclusive. This study examines the differences between the live and pasteurized forms of A. muciniphila strains on the lipid and glucose metabolism and on regulating the inflammatory immune responses using a HFD-fed obese mouse model. The animals were administered the live and pasteurized forms of two A. muciniphila strains five times per week for the entire study period of 12 weeks. Both forms of the bacterial strains improved the HFD-induced obesity and metabolic dysregulation in the mice by preventing body-weight gains after one week. In addition, they cause a decrease in the weights of the major adipose tissues, adipogenesis/lipogenesis and serum TC levels, improvement in glucose homeostasis and suppression of inflammatory insults. Furthermore, these treatments restored the damaged gut architecture and integrity and improved the hepatic structure and function in HFD-induced animals. On the other hand, for both bacterial strains, the pasteurized form was more potent in improving glucose tolerance than the live form. Moreover, specific A. muciniphila preparations with either live or pasteurized bacteria decreased the number and population (%) of splenic Treg cells (CD4+ Foxp3+) significantly in the HFD-fed animals, further supporting the anti-inflammatory properties of these bacteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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14 pages, 779 KiB  
Article
Ligilactobacillus salivarius PS2 Supplementation during Pregnancy and Lactation Prevents Mastitis: A Randomised Controlled Trial
by Esther Jiménez, Susana Manzano, Dietmar Schlembach, Krzysztof Arciszewski, Rocio Martin, Kaouther Ben Amor, Mieke Roelofs, Jan Knol, Juan Miguel Rodríguez, Michael Abou-Dakn and PREMIUM Study Group
Microorganisms 2021, 9(9), 1933; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091933 - 11 Sep 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8188
Abstract
Mastitis is considered one of the main reasons for unwanted breastfeeding cessation. This study aimed to investigate the preventive effect of the probiotic strain Ligilactobacillus salivarius PS2 on the occurrence of mastitis in lactating women. In this multicountry, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, [...] Read more.
Mastitis is considered one of the main reasons for unwanted breastfeeding cessation. This study aimed to investigate the preventive effect of the probiotic strain Ligilactobacillus salivarius PS2 on the occurrence of mastitis in lactating women. In this multicountry, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 328 women were assigned to the probiotic or the placebo group. The intervention started from the 35th week of pregnancy until week 12 post-partum. The primary outcome was the incidence (hazard) rate of mastitis, defined as the presence of at least two of the following symptoms: breast pain, breast erythema, breast engorgement not relieved by breastfeeding, and temperature > 38 °C. The probability of being free of mastitis during the study was higher in the probiotic than in the placebo group (p = 0.022, Kaplan–Meier log rank test) with 9 mastitis cases (6%) vs. 20 mastitis cases (14%), respectively. The hazard ratio of the incidence of mastitis between both study groups was 0.41 (0.190–0.915; p = 0.029), indicating that women in the probiotic group were 58% less likely to experience mastitis. In conclusion, supplementation of L. salivarius PS2 during late pregnancy and early lactation was safe and effective in preventing mastitis, which is one of the main barriers for continuing breastfeeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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15 pages, 2446 KiB  
Article
Cudrania tricuspidata Combined with Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus Modulate Gut Microbiota and Alleviate Obesity-Associated Metabolic Parameters in Obese Mice
by Ju Kyoung Oh, Robie Vasquez, In-Chan Hwang, Ye Na Oh, Sang Hoon Kim, Shin Ho Kang, Jae Yeon Joung, Nam Su Oh, Sejeong Kim, Yohan Yoon and Dae-Kyung Kang
Microorganisms 2021, 9(9), 1908; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091908 - 8 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2919
Abstract
The aim of the presented study was to investigate the synbiotic effects of L. rhamnosus 4B15 and C. tricuspidata extract administration on the gut microbiota and obesity-associated metabolic parameters in diet-induced obese mice. Thirty-one 6-week-old male C57BL/N6 mice were divided into five diet [...] Read more.
The aim of the presented study was to investigate the synbiotic effects of L. rhamnosus 4B15 and C. tricuspidata extract administration on the gut microbiota and obesity-associated metabolic parameters in diet-induced obese mice. Thirty-one 6-week-old male C57BL/N6 mice were divided into five diet groups: normal diet (ND, n = 7) group; high-fat diet (HFD, n = 6) group; probiotic (PRO, n = 5) group; prebiotic (PRE, n = 7) group; and synbiotic (SYN, n = 6) group. After 10 weeks, the percent of fat mass, serum triglyceride, and ALT levels were significantly reduced in SYN-fed obese mice, compared with other treatments. SYN treatment also modulated the abundance of Desulfovibrio, Dorea, Adlercreutzia, Allobaculum, Coprococcus, unclassified Clostridiaceae, Lactobacillus, Helicobacter, Flexispira, Odoribacter, Ruminococcus, unclassified Erysipelotrichaceae, and unclassified Desulfovibrionaceae. These taxa showed a strong correlation with obesity-associated indices. Lastly, the SYN-supplemented diet upregulated metabolic pathways known to improve metabolic health. Further investigations are needed to understand the mechanisms driving the synbiotic effect of C. tricuspidata and L. rhamnosus 4B15. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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18 pages, 2455 KiB  
Article
A Tentative Study of the Effects of Heat-Inactivation of the Probiotic Strain Shewanella putrefaciens Pdp11 on Senegalese Sole (Solea senegalensis) Intestinal Microbiota and Immune Response
by Marta Domínguez-Maqueda, Isabel M. Cerezo, Silvana Teresa Tapia-Paniagua, Inés García De La Banda, Xabier Moreno-Ventas, Miguel Ángel Moriñigo and Maria Carmen Balebona
Microorganisms 2021, 9(4), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9040808 - 12 Apr 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3020
Abstract
Concerns about safety, applicability and functionality associated with live probiotic cells have led to consideration of the use of non-viable microorganisms, known as paraprobiotics. The present study evaluated the effects of dietary administration of heat-inactivated cells of the probiotic strain Shewanella putrefaciens Pdp11 [...] Read more.
Concerns about safety, applicability and functionality associated with live probiotic cells have led to consideration of the use of non-viable microorganisms, known as paraprobiotics. The present study evaluated the effects of dietary administration of heat-inactivated cells of the probiotic strain Shewanella putrefaciens Pdp11 on the intestinal microbiota and immune gene transcription in Solea senegalensis. Results obtained were evaluated and compared to those described after feeding with viable Pdp11 cells. S. senegalensis specimens were fed with basal (control) diet or supplemented with live or heat inactivated (60 °C, 1 h) probiotics diets for 45 days. Growth improvement was observed in the group receiving live probiotics compared to the control group, but not after feeding with a probiotic heat-inactivated diet. Regarding immune gene transcription, no changes were observed for tnfα, il-6, lys-c1, c7, hsp70, and hsp90aa in the intestinal samples based on the diet. On the contrary, hsp90ab, gp96, cd4, cd8, il-1β, and c3 transcription were modulated after probiotic supplementation, though no differences between viable and heat-inactivated probiotic supplemented diets were observed. Modulation of intestinal microbiota showed remarkable differences based on the viability of the probiotics. Thus, higher diversity in fish fed with live probiotic cells, jointly with increased Mycoplasmataceae and Spirochaetaceae to the detriment of Brevinemataceae, was detected. However, microbiota of fish receiving heat-inactivated probiotic cells showed decreased Mycoplasmataceae and increased Brevinemataceae and Vibrio genus abundance. In short, the results obtained indicate that the viable state of Pdp11 probiotic cells affects growth performance and modulation of S. senegalensis intestinal microbiota. On the contrary, minor changes were detected in the intestinal immune response, being similar for fish receiving both, viable and inactivated probiotic cell supplemented diets, when compared to the control diet. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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Review

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22 pages, 1534 KiB  
Review
Gut Microbiome, Functional Food, Atherosclerosis, and Vascular Calcifications—Is There a Missing Link?
by Dragos Cretoiu, Ruxandra Florentina Ionescu, Robert Mihai Enache, Sanda Maria Cretoiu and Silviu Cristian Voinea
Microorganisms 2021, 9(9), 1913; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091913 - 9 Sep 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7471
Abstract
The gut microbiome is represented by the genome of all microorganisms (symbiotic, potential pathogens, or pathogens) residing in the intestine. These ecological communities are involved in almost all metabolic diseases and cardiovascular diseases are not excluded. Atherosclerosis, with a continuously increasing incidence in [...] Read more.
The gut microbiome is represented by the genome of all microorganisms (symbiotic, potential pathogens, or pathogens) residing in the intestine. These ecological communities are involved in almost all metabolic diseases and cardiovascular diseases are not excluded. Atherosclerosis, with a continuously increasing incidence in recent years, is the leading cause of coronary heart disease and stroke by plaque rupture and intraplaque hemorrhage. Vascular calcification, a process very much alike with osteogenesis, is considered to be a marker of advanced atherosclerosis. New evidence, suggesting the role of dietary intake influence on the diversity of the gut microbiome in the development of vascular calcifications, is highly debated. Gut microbiota can metabolize choline, phosphatidylcholine, and L-carnitine and produce vasculotoxic metabolites, such as trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a proatherogenic metabolite. This review article aims to discuss the latest research about how probiotics and the correction of diet is impacting the gut microbiota and its metabolites in the atherosclerotic process and vascular calcification. Further studies could create the premises for interventions in the microbiome as future primary tools in the prevention of atherosclerotic plaque and vascular calcifications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialogue of Probiotics with the Host)
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