Minerals

Research

17 pages, 7079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Materials and Techniques of the Mural Paintings in the Church-Ossuary of the Rila Monastery, Bulgaria

by Bistra Stamboliyska, Stefan Tapanov, Evelina Velcheva, Stela Atanasova-Vladimirova, Bogdan Ranguelov, Maya Guncheva, Simeon Stoyanov and Denitsa Yancheva

Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111115 - 2 Nov 2024

Viewed by 552

Abstract

This presented research examined the wall paintings in the Church-Ossuary Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, part of the most important Rila Monastery complex in Bulgaria, painted by the painters from Mount Athos in 1795. The painting materials used to create the unique murals [...] Read more.

This presented research examined the wall paintings in the Church-Ossuary Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, part of the most important Rila Monastery complex in Bulgaria, painted by the painters from Mount Athos in 1795. The painting materials used to create the unique murals were studied for the first time by optical microscopy (OM), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR–FTIR), scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The vibrational and elemental analysis showed that the color palette of the paintings is composed of pigments traditional for Orthodox church wall paintings such as natural pigments, including yellow ochre, red ochre, green earth, and calcite, as well as other historical pigments of synthetic origin, including smalt, red lead, cinnabar, and verdigris. The analysis of the binders by the ATR–FTIR spectroscopy and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis implied the use of the post-Byzantine egg tempera technique. Only the blue backgrounds in the murals were painted using a smalt-based paint mixed with a carbohydrate binder. Based on the current analysis and comparison with the successive paintings in the other churches of the Rila Monastery, it could be concluded that the technology of the painting process followed by the Athonite artists during the work in the Church-Ossuary became a point of reference for many Bulgarian icon-painters later. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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25 pages, 51862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conservation Assessment of the Stone Blocks in the Northeast Corner of the Karnak Temples in Luxor, Egypt

by Abdelrhman Fahmy, Eduardo Molina-Piernas and Salvador Domínguez-Bella

Minerals 2024, 14(9), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090890 - 30 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1573

Abstract

The Karnak Temples complex, a monumental site dating back to approximately 1970 BC, faces significant preservation challenges due to a confluence of mechanical, environmental, and anthropogenic factors impacting its stone blocks. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of the deterioration affecting the northeast [...] Read more.

The Karnak Temples complex, a monumental site dating back to approximately 1970 BC, faces significant preservation challenges due to a confluence of mechanical, environmental, and anthropogenic factors impacting its stone blocks. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of the deterioration affecting the northeast corner of the complex, revealing that the primary forms of damage include split cracking and fracturing. Seismic activities have induced out-of-plane displacements, fractures, and chipping, while flooding has worsened structural instability through uplift and prolonged water exposure. Soil liquefaction and fluctuating groundwater levels have exacerbated the misalignment and embedding of stone blocks. Thermal stress and wind erosion have caused microstructural decay and surface degradation and contaminated water sources have led to salt weathering and chemical alterations. Multi-temporal satellite imagery has revealed the influence of vegetation, particularly invasive plant species, on physical and biochemical damage to the stone. This study utilized in situ assessments to document damage patterns and employed satellite imagery to assess environmental impacts, providing a multi-proxy approach to understanding the current state of the stone blocks. This analysis highlights the urgent need for a multi-faceted conservation strategy. Recommendations include constructing elevated platforms from durable materials to reduce soil and water contact, implementing non-invasive cleaning and consolidation techniques, and developing effective water management and contamination prevention measures. Restoration should focus on repairing severely affected blocks with historically accurate materials and establishing an open museum setting will enhance public engagement. Long-term preservation will benefit from regular monitoring using 3D scanning and a preventive conservation schedule. Future research should explore non-destructive testing and interdisciplinary collaboration to refine conservation strategies and ensure the sustained protection of this invaluable historical heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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23 pages, 15745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Petrographic, Geomatic and Geophysical Approach for the Characterization of the Carbonate Rocks of the Calcari di Cagliari Formation

by Giuseppe Casula, Silvana Fais, Francesco Cuccuru, Maria Giovanna Bianchi and Paola Ligas

Minerals 2024, 14(5), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050501 - 10 May 2024

Viewed by 939

Abstract

Non-invasive techniques, such as close-range photogrammetry (CRP) and 3D ultrasonic tomography complemented with optical and scanning electron microscopy and mercury porosimetry, were applied to characterize the carbonate rock samples of the Calcari di Cagliari formation. The integrated approach started with the computation of [...] Read more.

Non-invasive techniques, such as close-range photogrammetry (CRP) and 3D ultrasonic tomography complemented with optical and scanning electron microscopy and mercury porosimetry, were applied to characterize the carbonate rock samples of the Calcari di Cagliari formation. The integrated approach started with the computation of high-resolution 3D models of the carbonate samples using the CRP technique to produce 3D high-resolution models texturized both with natural colors and intensity. Starting from the 3D models from previous techniques, a 3D ultrasonic tomography on each rock sample was accurately planned and carried out in order to detect the elastic properties of such rocks and relate them to textural heterogeneity or internal defects. The results indicate that the relationship between longitudinal velocity and rock properties is complex even in the same carbonate formation. Understanding the relationship between the geomatic and geophysical responses in the investigated rock properties, such as textural characteristics and especially structure and geometry of pores, type of pores, tortuosity and cementing material, is important for many practical applications and especially in the diagnostic process of the conservation state of monumental structures. The integration of the above non-invasive techniques complemented by petrographical–petrophysical data proved to be a powerful method to associate each lithotype with a different susceptibility to degradation. The results presented in this paper demonstrate that the proposed integrated use of complementary methodologies would guarantee the reproducibility of the measurements both at the laboratory and field scale for the monitoring in time of the rock condition while giving a useful contribution in making decisions on an appropriate remedial strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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30 pages, 10354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Modelling Approach to Enhance the Characterization of a Bronze Age Nuragic Site

by Stefano Cara, Paolo Valera and Carlo Matzuzzi

Minerals 2024, 14(5), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050489 - 6 May 2024

Viewed by 1303

Abstract

Megalithism in Sardinia (Italy) had its highest expression during the Bronze Age with the creation of monumental complexes known as Nuraghes. These unique monuments have recently been the subject of in-depth investigations for their potential to be recognized as World Heritage Sites (by [...] Read more.

Megalithism in Sardinia (Italy) had its highest expression during the Bronze Age with the creation of monumental complexes known as Nuraghes. These unique monuments have recently been the subject of in-depth investigations for their potential to be recognized as World Heritage Sites (by UNESCO). The main purpose of our research was to make a contribution to obtain a more in-depth characterization of these monuments by testing a 3D model of a complex Nuraghe, integrated with an analysis of the geolithological context. This work first focused on the geological and typological investigation of the materials used in its construction, which was then compared with the geolithological characteristics of the region. A survey of the outcropping remains was carried out by means of Structure-from-Motion Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetry with UAV ground and aerial acquisition using APS-C photo sensors, georeferenced with an RTK-GNSS ground survey. The level of accuracy of our digital models shows the potential of the proposed method, giving accurate and geometrically consistent 3D reconstructions in terms of georeferencing error, shape and surface. The survey method allows for the virtualization of the current state of conservation of the Nuraghe, giving a solid basis to set up further (future) archaeological excavations and to contribute to knowledge on the architecture of the structures. This study also provides useful information on the nature and origin of the construction materials and proposes a hypothesis on the original dimensions of the monument, which is often a topic of debate in the world of archaeology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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19 pages, 11074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Analytical Analysis of Decorative Color Plasters from the Thracian Tomb near Alexandrovo, Bulgaria

by Georgi Avdeev, Rositsa Kukeva, Denitsa Yancheva, Valentin Mihailov, Vani Tankova, Momtchil Dimitrov, Georgi Nekhrizov, Radostina Stoyanova and Bistra Stamboliyska

Minerals 2024, 14(4), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14040374 - 2 Apr 2024

Viewed by 2381

Abstract

In the present contribution, we report the results from a study on the ancient technology used to create decorative color plasters in the Thracian tomb near the village of Alexandrovo, Bulgaria. A series of fragments of red, black, grey, white and brown colored [...] Read more.

In the present contribution, we report the results from a study on the ancient technology used to create decorative color plasters in the Thracian tomb near the village of Alexandrovo, Bulgaria. A series of fragments of red, black, grey, white and brown colored lime plasters from the dromos and funeral chamber were investigated by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, infrared spectroscopy, paramagnetic electron resonance spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. Based on the combined analytical data, it was possible to identify the pigments, fillers and other materials in the composition of the decorative plasters in the interior, as well as to clarify the technological features related to the plaster creation. The results demonstrated that the murals were implemented on two layers in the case of white, black, grey and brown decoration—first coarse mortar, followed by a white, fine mortar, which usually was made of calcite. In the case of red decoration, a pigment was added to the fine mortar to achieve a colored surface. The pigments were identified as mostly traditional mineral pigments—calcite, kaolinite, red natural ochres (colored earth), brown colored earth and black pigment (amorphous C). The use of the fresco technique is implied by the major participation of calcite and the absence of organic binder in all of the painting layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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13 pages, 51443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Secrets of an Artwork through Non-Invasive Investigations—Case Study of a 19th-Century Female Portrait

by Adrian Rauca, Luminița Ghervase, Antonia Berdie and Matei Agachi

Minerals 2023, 13(9), 1193; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13091193 - 11 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1538

Abstract

This article aims to present the results of the investigations performed on a 19th-century oil painting on canvas belonging to the Conservation and Restoration Department of the University of Art and Design in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The artwork depicting the portrait of a lady [...] Read more.

This article aims to present the results of the investigations performed on a 19th-century oil painting on canvas belonging to the Conservation and Restoration Department of the University of Art and Design in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The artwork depicting the portrait of a lady originating from an important Irish noble family (Judith Bunbury, 1785–1861) has been investigated using only non-invasive methods. The investigation protocol included digital photography in different light sources at different wavelengths, which was used to document the current condition of the painting, UV fluorescence, which highlighted the previous improper retouches and the presence of a varnish coat, Infrared reflectography, which brought to light the underdrawing made by the artist and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, an elemental analysis technique which indicated the chemical composition of the pigments, suggesting the use of lead white, a barium white pigment, yellow and red ochre, vermilion, cobalt blue, and a manganese-based brown pigment. The results of this entirely non-invasive investigation approach helped in choosing the most appropriate conservation and restoration methodology for the artwork. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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15 pages, 5350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Rock Porosity and Infrared Cooling Rate in Non-Standard Specimens of Tuffs Used in the Hungarian Cultural Heritage

by Simone Mineo, Luigi Germinario, Ákos Török and Giovanna Pappalardo

Minerals 2023, 13(8), 1100; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13081100 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1037

Abstract

This paper is focused on the application of Infrared Thermography to non-standard rock specimens, in terms of size and deterioration conditions, of Hungarian tuff to monitor their cooling process and to look for a relationship between the rock Cooling Rate Index and the [...] Read more.

This paper is focused on the application of Infrared Thermography to non-standard rock specimens, in terms of size and deterioration conditions, of Hungarian tuff to monitor their cooling process and to look for a relationship between the rock Cooling Rate Index and the porosity. Literature data agree on the potential of Infrared Thermography for the indirect estimation of rock porosity in fresh specimens through the IRTest, but this technique has never been tested on non-standard specimens. To this purpose, tests on three varieties of Hungarian tuffs were carried out. These materials were selected for their cultural importance linked to their usage as building stones and in other historical applications in Northern Hungary. Tuff specimens underwent a fixed number of salt crystallization cycles. The Cooling Rate Index (CRI) for each specimen was calculated according to the literature experience and correlated to their porosity estimated by water, helium, and mercury intrusion. The results show that the rock cooling process is related to porosity since more porous rocks are characterized by faster cooling. Positive linear trends were achieved for weathered specimens considering 20 min monitoring (CRI₂₀), which is double the time suitable for untreated rocks. The reason should be searched in salt crystallization’s effects on the rock texture, paving the way to further studies on this pioneering branch of technological application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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13 pages, 3893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Material and Technical Analysis of La Inmaculada by Francisco Pacheco

by Anabelle Kriznar, Javier Moreno-Soto, Antonio Gamero-Osuna, Agustín Martín-de-Soto, Francisco José Ager and Miguel Ángel Respaldiza

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040541 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1664

Abstract

Francisco Pacheco (1564–1644) was one of the most important Spanish painters, the author of the famous treatise Art of Painting, and a founder of Seville art school. His painting La Inmaculada (1610) forms part of the important art collection in the Archbishop’s Palace [...] Read more.

Francisco Pacheco (1564–1644) was one of the most important Spanish painters, the author of the famous treatise Art of Painting, and a founder of Seville art school. His painting La Inmaculada (1610) forms part of the important art collection in the Archbishop’s Palace in Seville and represents the first realization of a new iconography, established by Pacheco. Later, he carried out several paintings with the same subject which are today in different collections. As part of a larger project, La Inmaculada was recently restored and analysed. The characterization of materials and painting procedures was carried out applying noninvasive in situ analysis by ultraviolet fluorescence (UVF), infrared reflectography (IRR), and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). Results revealed many retouches, probably from different periods, as well as some pentimenti in the composition. Chemical analysis indicates a preparation made of Seville clay, lead white and some calcite on an animal glue layer, according to Pacheco’s own treatise, and a corresponding pigment palette for the 17th century: lead white, yellow and red earths, lead–tin yellow, vermilion, azurite, smalt, a copper-based green, umber, and bone black. Furthermore, modern pigments such as titanium and zinc whites, chrome green, and cadmium yellow were also identified as results of later interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)

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