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Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 21189

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Prof. Dr. Frederick Lin Sutherland

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Mineralogy and Petrology, Geosciences, Australian Museum, 1 William Street, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
Interests: gem minerals; igneous petrology; volcanism; Australian geology; tectonics; mass extinction;
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Dear Colleagues,

The Cretaceous is a special period of the Earth’s history including great evolutionary changes that have been rather well described but incompletely summarized in the literature. The most significant of them was the anomalously high igneous activity that was associated with a specific geomagnetic field, increased crustal production, global plate reorganization, a huge emission of greenhouse gases, thermal climatic maximum, and significant biological transformations, such as the appearance of angiosperms. These also resulted in giant energetic (mostly petroleum) and mineral resources. The latter include but are not limited to different hydrothermal deposits, such as granite- and adakite-related related examples, precious gemstones, rare metal ores, rare metal carbonatites, and diamondiferous kimberlites.

All these changes and events may be summarized under the concept of “Cretaceous turn of geological evolution”, connecting them with the critical point of Earth’s history when the solar system passed through the most distant point of its galactic orbit. This concept is probably not the only possible explanation of the data on the matter. Many researchers may prefer focusing on the evolution of the Earth as itself, independently from its cosmic circumstances. The main goal of this issue is the gathering of information that may help our understanding of the great Cretaceous evolutionary changes in their global context, based on both galactic and inner-Earth points of view.

The expected papers may be devoted to various aspects of the Cretaceous evolution, including magmatic, tectonic, and hydrothermal activities, catastrophic events and evolutionary changes in the deep Earth, hydrosphere and atmosphere, and accumulation of energetic and mineral resources. Some works may be focused on useful mineralization, while others concentrate on geological and biological processes as themselves. The papers that synthesize data from different fields of Earth’s and space sciences are of special interest.

Prof. Dr. Frederick Lin Sutherland
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Cretaceous
geological evolution
cosmic influence
igneous activity
mantle plumes and fluids
plate reorganization
climate change
mineral resources
metallogenic provinces
ore deposits

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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21 pages, 12175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petrogenesis of the Newly Discovered Early Cretaceous Peralkaline Granitic Dikes in Baerzhe Area of Jarud Banner, Inner Mongolia: Implications for Deciphering Magma Evolution

by Li Tian, Deyou Sun, Jun Gou, Shan Jiang, Zhao Feng, Duo Zhang and Yujie Hao

Minerals 2022, 12(12), 1532; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12121532 - 29 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2598

Abstract

The super-large Baerzhe Be–Nb–Zr–REE deposit in NE China is hosted in the Early Cretaceous peralkaline granites. In this work, the newly discovered granitic dikes developed around the Baerzhe deposit were studied for the first time, focusing on their genesis and genetic relationships with the Baerzhe peralkaline granites. Zircon U-Pb dating of these granitic rocks (including the granite porphyry, rhyolite and miarolitic granite) yielded Early Cretaceous ages of 125–121 Ma. Their mineral assemblages and geochemical features suggest that they share similar features with the peralkaline A-type granites. Their geochemical data and zircon Hf isotopic compositions (ε_Hf(t) = +3.4 to +10.5) indicate that the peralkaline granitic rocks were formed by the partial melting of dehydrated charnockite with extensive plagioclase crystal fractionation, which resulted in a peralkaline affinity. There are two types of distinct zircons in the studied samples: the type I zircon with a bright rim and dark core, which may represent a cumulate mineral phase captured together with aggregates during eruption, and the type II zircon with a higher evolution degree crystallized in the residual melts. Combined with the simulation results using whole-rock trace elements, we proposed that the peralkaline granitic dikes represent more evolved interstitial melts than the Baerzhe granitic magma. In the Early Cretaceous extensional tectonic settings, mantle-derived magma upwelled, which induced the melting of the lower crust and prolonged the evolutionary process of the magma crystal mush. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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25 pages, 20294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thrust Structure and Bidirectional Paleocurrent in the Jingzhushan Formation during the Late Cretaceous in the Nyima Basin, Tibet Plateau, China: Approach of Magnetic Fabric and Zircon Chronology

by Qinglong Chen, Xin Cheng, Feifei Huo, Yanan Zhou, Nan Jiang, Bitian Wei, Yuchun Liu, Baofeng Wang, Pengxiang Xu, Dongmeng Zhang, Longyun Xing, Teng Li, Feifan Liu, Jingyue Wu, Jiawei Wang and Hanning Wu

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1225; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101225 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1825

Abstract

(1) Background: The widely developed thrust structures in the Jingzhushan Formation of late Cretaceous in Nyima Basin are related to the collision which leads to orogeny between the Lhasa and Qiangtang blocks. Clarifying the tectonic properties of the Nyima Basin is of great significance to characterize the evolution of the collision between the Lhasa block and the Qiangtang block. (2) Methods: Combined with mineralogy and petrology and U-Pb zircon dating of extrusive rocks, a detailed magnetic fabric test and rock magnetic experiment were carried out on the red sandstones of the Late Cretaceous Jingzhushan Formation in Nyima Basin. (3) Results: The sedimentary magnetic fabrics developed at the three sampling locations in the southern part of the basin are related to paleocurrents. The strained magnetic fabrics developed at one sampling site in the north, including pencil-like fabrics and tensile linear fabrics, are related to SE-NW tectonic stress. The average magnetic susceptibility value of the strained fabric with sandstone is lower than that of the sedimentary fabric, and its size is controlled by mica paramagnetic minerals. Ferromagnetic minerals are magnetite or hematite. In addition, the age of sandstone in the Jingzhushan Formation from the Nyima Basin matches the age of the eruptive rock in the Jingzhushan Formation from Coqen Basin, which is 92 Ma. (4) Conclusions: The strained fabric is developed near the thrust fault, which can explain the widely developed thrust structures in the basin. The Nyima Basin of the Jingzhushan Formation in the Late Cretaceous was an ocean-continent transitional foreland basin developed under the background of arc-arc “soft collision”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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28 pages, 54990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Evolution of the Crustal Uplift in Eastern NE China: Constraint from Detrital Zircon Ages of Late Mesozoic Clastic Rocks in the Boli Basin

by Song He, Hong Cheng, Shuangqing Li, Cong Cao, Jun He and Fukun Chen

Minerals 2022, 12(9), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091166 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2084

Abstract

Detrital zircon of clastic rocks has been widely recognized as a powerful tool for the study of crustal uplift, which is of great significance for understanding multi-sphere interaction. However, young detrital zircons can only roughly constrain the depositional time of the strata, and commonly used zircon age probability density and kernel density estimations cannot provide sufficient evidence to reveal spatio-temporal differences in tectonic uplift. The basins developed in active continental margins usually contain abundant magmatic rocks, which can provide insights into basin evolution and crustal deformation when combined with sedimentary characteristics. In this study, we report detrital zircon ages of Late Mesozoic clastic rocks from the Boli Basin, being part of the Great Sanjiang Basin Group in eastern NE China, which is strongly affected by the Paleo-Pacific subduction. In conjunction with the age data of coeval magmatic rocks and potential sedimentary sources of basement rocks adjacent to the basin, the geochronologic results of this study provide solid evidence for the formation of the Boli Basin and the spatio-temporal evolution of the crustal uplift in northeastern China. The Boli Basin went through multi-phase tectonic evolution of syn-rift and post-rift stages, based on the zircon age data of clastic and igneous rocks. When the geographical distribution characteristics of potential sedimentary sources and their percentages of contribution are taken into account, two stages of eastward migration of the crustal uplift and two episodes of basin destruction caused by the tectonic extension and subsequent compression can be proposed for the Boli Basin. These processes were caused successively by the rolling back of the subducted Paleo-Pacific slab, the docking of the Okhotomorsk block along the eastern continental margin of East Asia, and the transition of the subduction zone by the collision of the Okhotomorsk block. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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13 pages, 4144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clay Mineral Assemblages in the Cretaceous Volcanogenic–Sedimentary Rocks of the North-Western Part of the Transition Zone from the Asian Continent to the Pacific Ocean

by Anatoly V. Mozherovsky

Minerals 2022, 12(7), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070909 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1762

Abstract

In this study, clay and non-clay minerals in the cement of Cretaceous volcanogenic–sedimentary rocks from the bottom of the marginal seas of the north-western Pacific Ocean and adjacent areas were studied. Corrensite and mixed-layer chlorite–smectite, rectorite and mixed-layer illite–smectite, chlorite, swelling chlorite (?), illite, kaolinite, smectite (?), calcite, ankerite, barite, gypsum, epsomite, zeolites (laumontite, analcime, and stilbite), cristobalite, and quartz were determined. The following are the indicative properties: (a) minerals: corrensite and rectorite; (b) associations: corrensite–chlorite, corrensite–chlorite–laumontite, corrensite–epsomite–authigenic calcite, and quartz–illite. Such minerals indicate that the thickness of the accumulated sediments in the studied basins could reach three to five kilometers and that the temperature of their formation could be higher than 150 °C. Transformations in the process of diagenesis and epigenesis occur in two directions: smectite–rectorite–mica, with an excess of potassium, and smectite–corrensite–chlorite, with an excess of magnesium. The chlorite–corrensite association may indicate conditions favorable for seawater evaporation, and the presence of laumontite in the corrensite–chlorite association suggests a periodic supply of calcium to the sedimentation basin. The illite–kaolinite association is probably associated with coal accumulation in epicontinental conditions and a warm humid climate in nearby areas. Periods of sedimentation, possibly associated with global climate events, were identified: 113–120, 110–113, 105–110, 93–95, 72–83 and 61–72 Ma. The established time intervals and mineral associations can serve as benchmarks for stratigraphic constructions in reconstructing the physicochemical, climatic parameters, and conditions of Cretaceous volcanogenic–sedimentary strata accumulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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17 pages, 28671 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cretaceous Changes of Strike-Slip Tectonics on the North Pacific Margins: Implications for the Earth’s Rotation

by Victor P. Nechaev, Frederick L. Sutherland and Eugenia V. Nechaeva

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040516 - 6 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1644

Abstract

This study reviews the Meso–Cenozoic tectonic paleo-reconstructions for the East Asian and western North American continental margins, focusing on strike-slip tectonics. It follows previous studies by the present and other authors, which investigated the Cretaceous turn of geological evolution (CTGE). They largely studied significant changes in the Earth’s mineralization, magmatism and climate. The present study focuses on significant changes related to the Earth’s rotation velocity. This question is significant not only for fundamental science, but also for applied geology, because CTGE is marked by abundant ore and energetic resources. The results show domination of sinistral shearing on the NE-oriented Asian margin during the pre-early Cretaceous time that turned to significant development of dextral movements in the mid Cretaceous–Cenozoic time. On the NW-oriented American margin, significant development of sinistral movements in the pre-early Cretaceous time turned to domination of dextral shearing during late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. These tectonic changes indicate the transition of the Earth’s rotation from the accelerating towards decelerating regime after CTGE (135–120 Ma). This change may be caused by the transition of the Earth’ mass to, and then, away from the polar regions, the processes being related to melting and freezing of the ice caps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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51 pages, 10601 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Metalliferous Coals of Cretaceous Age: A Review

by Shifeng Dai, Sergey I. Arbuzov, Igor Yu. Chekryzhov, David French, Ian Feole, Bruce C. Folkedahl, Ian T. Graham, James C. Hower, Victor P. Nechaev, Nicola J. Wagner and Robert B. Finkelman

Minerals 2022, 12(9), 1154; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091154 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5266

Abstract

Critical elements in coal and coal-bearing sequences (e.g., Li, Sc, V, Ga, Ge, Se, Y and rare earth elements, Zr, Nb, Au, Ag, platinum group elements, Re, and U) have attracted great attention because their concentrations in some cases may be comparable to those of conventional ore deposits. The enrichment of critical elements in coals, particularly those of Carboniferous-Permian and Cenozoic ages, have generally been attributed to within-plate (plume-related) volcanism and associated hydrothermal activity. However, Cretaceous coals are not commonly rich in critical elements, with the exception of some (e.g., Ge and U) in localised areas. This paper globally reviewed metalliferous coals from Siberia, the Russian Far East, Mongolia, South America, the United States and Mexico, Canada (Alberta and British Columbia), China, Africa, and Australasia (Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, Northern Territory, New Zealand, Nelson, West Coast, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland). The world-class Ge-U or Ge deposits in North China, Mongolia, and Siberia are the only commercially significant representatives of the Cretaceous metalliferous coals, which are related to bio-chemical reduction of oxidized meteoric, hydrothermal, or sea waters by organic matter of the peat bogs. The common Cretaceous coals worldwide are generally not rich in critical elements because intensive igneous activity led to extensive acidification of terrestrial and marine waters, which are responsible for the low coal metallogenesis during the Cretaceous period, especially the Early Cretaceous time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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11 pages, 4515 KiB

Open AccessReview

Phanerozoic Evolution of Continental Large Igneous Provinces: Implications for Galactic Seasonality

by Victor P. Nechaev, Frederick L. Sutherland and Eugenia V. Nechaeva

Minerals 2022, 12(9), 1150; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091150 - 11 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1990

Abstract

This study reviews the available data on the Phanerozoic plume activity (Large Igneous Provinces (LIP’s) size and frequency) and geochemistry of their igneous rocks. A major goal of this review is to try to find the changes in intensity and geochemistry of mantle plumes linked to the Earth’s evolution and galactic seasonality that was supposed in the authors’ previous publications. The data indicate that the Cambrian–Ordovician and Jurassic–Cretaceous galactic summers were associated with peaks of various igneous activities including both plume- and subduction/collision-related magmatism, while the Carboniferous–Permian and current galactic winters led to significant drops within the igneous activity. The materials subducted into the transitional and lower mantle, which highly influenced the plume magmas in the galactic-summer times, were less significant in the galactic spring and autumn seasons. The least subduction-influenced LIPs were probably the Tarim and Emeishan deep plume magmas that developed in the mid–late Permian, during the galactic late winter–early spring subseason. The Fe enrichment of clinopyroxenite, gabbro, and associated ores of these provinces might be caused by fluids ascending from the core–mantle boundary. However, the most significant core influence through plume-associated fluids on the surface of solid Earth is supposed to have occurred in the galactic summer times (Cambrian–Ordovician and Jurassic–Cretaceous), which is indicated by peak abundances of ironstone ores. Their contributions to the Cambrian–Ordovician and Jurassic–Cretaceous plume magmas were, however, obscured by more significant influences from subduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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17 pages, 70727 KiB

Open AccessReview

Metallogenic Evolution of Northeast Asia Related to the Cretaceous Turn of Geological Evolution

by Victor P. Nechaev, Frederick L. Sutherland and Eugenia V. Nechaeva

Minerals 2022, 12(4), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12040400 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2346

Abstract

This study tests the hypothesis of Cretaceous Turn of Geological Evolution (CTGE). It uses the large dataset on mineral deposits of NE Asia compiled by the US Geological Survey in collaboration with Russian, Mongolian, Korean, and Japanese geological institutions. As predicted, the Triassic–Early Jurassic and Late Cretaceous–Paleogene geodynamic activities in NE Asia were simple, producing a relatively small amount of mineral deposits (94 and 132, respectively). In contrast, the greatly increased geodynamic activity around CTGE produced a huge amount of mineral deposits (288). The Jurassic–Early Cretaceous superplume-related melts were injected into accretionary wedges that formed along the Pacific–Eurasian margins, whereas adakitic and granitic magmas derived from the shallow slab and lower crust were intruded into the huge intracontinental region. The characteristic mineral deposits are represented by the unique Jurassic–Early Cretaceous plume-related Ti-Fe-V (+P + Cr-PGE + Au + diamond) ores. Other CTGE representatives are the porphyry Cu-Mo and Au (+Ag)-vein deposits, which formation, however, continued into the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene epoch. These deposits were generated by the slab- and crust-derived adakitic and granitic melts formed under influence of the expiring superplume and intensifying subduction. The Late Cretaceous–Paleogene epoch is indicated by a decreasing metallogenic activity in general, and an increasing role of subduction-related deposits in particular. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Evolution of The Cretaceous and Associated Mineralization)

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