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Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research
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Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research

A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Macromolecular Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2025 | Viewed by 12427

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Jin Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
Interests: functional graded materials; surface modification; quantum chemical calculation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Epoxy resin has been applied in aerospace, automotive, energy, adhesives, electronics, coatings, and so on, thanks to its versatile properties. Recently, there has been an ever-increasing demand for advanced epoxy resin systems that have well-defined structures and desirable properties, in order to adapt to the newer requirements of different industries. The properties of epoxy end-use products are closely associated with the structure of the growing network. It is important to obtain a complete mechanism and accurate kinetic model that has predictive capabilities. Suitable modifiers and optimized curing processes play a vital role in developing high-performance epoxy-based composites. Recent advances in molecular simulation and chemical calculation have revolutionized the way we perceive the synthesis and performance of epoxy resins.

This Special Issue on “Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research” welcomes original research and reviews on: (1) novel technologies and approaches for the synthesis and characterization of epoxy resin systems; (2) advanced hardeners, modifiers, and accelerators for high-performance epoxy-based composites; (3) curing kinetics and mechanism analysis of various epoxy/curing agent systems combined with molecular simulation and chemical calculation methods; (4) optimization of resin curing, infusion, and impregnation processes; and (5) epoxy-based composites and their applications.

Dr. Jin Li
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • Synthesis, modification, and characterization
  • Curing kinetics and mechanism
  • Epoxy-based nanocomposites
  • Interface characteristics
  • Advanced hardeners, modifiers, and accelerators
  • Thermal, mechanical, and dielectric properties
  • Applications
  • Quantum chemical calculations
  • Molecular design

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 1900 KiB  
Article
Quantum Chemical Model Calculations of Adhesion and Dissociation between Epoxy Resin and Si-Containing Molecules
by Hao Xue, Yingxiao Xi and Naoki Kishimoto
Molecules 2024, 29(21), 5050; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29215050 - 25 Oct 2024
Viewed by 497
Abstract
There is no doubt that when solid surfaces are modified, the functional groups and atoms directly bonded to solid atoms play a major role in adsorption interactions with molecules or resins. In this study, the adhesion and dissociation between epoxy resin and molecules [...] Read more.
There is no doubt that when solid surfaces are modified, the functional groups and atoms directly bonded to solid atoms play a major role in adsorption interactions with molecules or resins. In this study, the adhesion and dissociation between epoxy resin and molecules containing Si atoms were analyzed. The analysis, conducted in contact with the solid surface of silicon, utilized quantum chemical calculations based on a molecular model. We compared some Si-containing molecular models to test quantum chemical calculations that contribute to the study of adhesion and dissociation between epoxy resins and solid surfaces somehow other than simple potential energy curve calculations. The AFIR (artificial force induced reaction) method, implemented in the GRRM (global reaction route mapping) program, was employed to separate an epoxy resin model molecule and three types of silicon compounds (Si(CH3)2(OH)2, Si(CH3)4, and (CH3)2SiF2) in three directions, determining their minimum dissociation energy when changing the applied energy by 2.5 kJ/mol. In systems with weak hydrogen bonds, such as Si(CH3)4 or (CH3)2SiF2, the energy required for dissociation was not large; however, in systems with strong hydrogen bonds, such as Si(CH3)2(OH)2, dissociation was more difficult in the vertical direction. Although anisotropy due to hydroxyl groups was calculated in the horizontal direction, dissociation remained relatively easy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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14 pages, 1028 KiB  
Article
Design and Characterization of Epoxy Resin Systems Based on Mixtures of Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids with Docusate and Dicyanamide Anions
by Andrea Szpecht, Dawid Zielinski, Szymon Roszyk and Marcin Smiglak
Molecules 2024, 29(19), 4538; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29194538 - 24 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 567
Abstract
This study focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and application of four ionic liquids (ILs), three of which are being reported for the first time, with unique thermal properties and diverse anion-cation combinations, specifically in the context of epoxy resin polymerization. 1-3-Didodecylimidazolium dicyanamide (dDDIM [...] Read more.
This study focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and application of four ionic liquids (ILs), three of which are being reported for the first time, with unique thermal properties and diverse anion-cation combinations, specifically in the context of epoxy resin polymerization. 1-3-Didodecylimidazolium dicyanamide (dDDIM DCA), 1-3-Didodecylimidazolium docusate (dDDIM DOSS), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide (EMIM DCA), and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium docusate (EMIM DOSS) were used to prepare six different mixtures with the same cation and with varying concentrations of DCA components, which is the main factor of an efficient polymerization, while the other component is intended to modify the properties of the cured resin. Mixtures based on EMIM cation demonstrated increased enthalpy and lower onset polymerization temperatures, indicating more efficient curing processes. The hardness of cured epoxy resins can be adjusted by altering the curing temperature and IL composition, with EMIM DCA and EMIM DOSS mixtures displaying high Shore A hardness, suitable for durable surface applications. In contrast, mixtures with higher dDDIM DCA proportions offered a balance between rigidity and flexibility, ideal for applications requiring both mechanical strength and elasticity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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12 pages, 2613 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Epoxy Composites with UV Resistance Based on New Kraft Lignin Coatings
by Rubén Seoane-Rivero, Patricia Ares-Elejoste, Koldo Gondra, Sara Amini, Pedro-Luis de Hoyos and Maria Gonzalez-Alriols
Molecules 2024, 29(15), 3697; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29153697 - 5 Aug 2024
Viewed by 834
Abstract
Currently, the composite industry is focusing on more environmentally friendly resources in order to generate a new range of biobased materials. In this manuscript, we present a new work using lignocellulosic wastes from the paper industry to incorporate into biobased epoxy systems. The [...] Read more.
Currently, the composite industry is focusing on more environmentally friendly resources in order to generate a new range of biobased materials. In this manuscript, we present a new work using lignocellulosic wastes from the paper industry to incorporate into biobased epoxy systems. The manufactured materials were composed of kraft lignin, glass fiber, and a sustainable epoxy system, obtaining a 40% biobased content. Using a vacuum infusion process, we fabricated the composites and analyzed their mechanical and UV resistance properties. The findings reveal a significant correlation between the lignin content and flexural modulus and strength, showing an increase of 69% in the flexural modulus and 134% in the flexural strength with the presence of 5% of lignin content. Moreover, it is necessary to highlight that the presence of synthesized lignin inhibits the UV degradation of the biobased epoxy coating. We propose that the use of lignocellulosic-based wastes could improve the mechanical properties and generate UV resistance in the composite materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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16 pages, 5305 KiB  
Article
Thermo-Mechanical Properties and Phase-Separated Morphology of Warm-Mix Epoxy Asphalt Binders with Different Epoxy Resin Concentrations
by Chengwei Wu, Haocheng Yang, Xinpeng Cui, Jun Cai, Zuanru Yuan, Junsheng Zhang and Hongfeng Xie
Molecules 2024, 29(14), 3251; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29143251 - 9 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 778
Abstract
The performance and phase-separated microstructures of epoxy asphalt binders greatly depend on the concentration of epoxy resin or bitumen. In this paper, the effect of the epoxy resin (ER) concentration (10–90%) on the viscosity, thermo-mechanical properties, and phase-separated morphology of warm-mix epoxy asphalt [...] Read more.
The performance and phase-separated microstructures of epoxy asphalt binders greatly depend on the concentration of epoxy resin or bitumen. In this paper, the effect of the epoxy resin (ER) concentration (10–90%) on the viscosity, thermo-mechanical properties, and phase-separated morphology of warm-mix epoxy asphalt binders (WEABs) was investigated using the Brookfield rotational viscometer, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). Due to the high reactivity of epoxy resin, the viscosity of WEABs increases with time. Furthermore, the initial viscosity of WEABs decreases with the ER concentration. Depending on the ER concentration, the viscosity–time behavior of WEABs is divided into three stages: slow (10–40%), fast (50–80%), and extremely slow (90%). In the slow stage, the viscosity slightly increases with the ER concentration, while the fast stage shows an opposite trend. DSC and DMA results reveal that WEABs with 10–80% ER exhibit two glass transition temperatures (Tgs) for cured epoxy resin and bitumen. Moreover, the Tgs of epoxy resin and bitumen increase with the ER concentration. However, WEAB with 90 % ER has only one Tg. LSCM observation shows that phase separation occurs in all WEABs. For WEABs containing 10–40% ER, spherical epoxy particles act as the discontinuous phase and disperse in the continuous bitumen phase. However, in WEABs with 50–90% ER, phase inversion takes place. Contrarily, bitumen particles disperse in the continuous epoxy phase. The damping properties of WEABs with the continuous epoxy phases increase with the ER concentration, while the crosslinking density shows an opposite trend. The occurrence of phase inversion results in a sharp increase in the tensile strength of WEABs. For WEABs with the continuous epoxy phases, the elongation at break increases with the ER concentration. The toughness first increases and then decreases with the ER concentration. A maximum toughness value shows at 70% ER. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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13 pages, 4834 KiB  
Article
Space Charge Characteristics at the Interface of Laminated Epoxy Resin
by Yifan Zhang, Bing Luo, Mingli Fu, Lei Jia, Chi Chen, Gang Zhou and Chuang Wang
Molecules 2023, 28(14), 5537; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145537 - 20 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1222
Abstract
In the design and manufacturing of epoxy resin insulation components, complex structures can be achieved through multiple pours, thereby forming the structure of interface of laminated epoxy resin. This type of interface structure is often considered a weak link in performance which can [...] Read more.
In the design and manufacturing of epoxy resin insulation components, complex structures can be achieved through multiple pours, thereby forming the structure of interface of laminated epoxy resin. This type of interface structure is often considered a weak link in performance which can easily accumulate charges and cause electric field distortion. However, research on the interlayer interface of epoxy resin has received little attention. In this study, epoxy samples with and without interlayer interfaces were prepared, and the space charge accumulation characteristics and trap characteristics of the samples were analyzed via pulsed electro-acoustic (PEA) and thermally stimulated depolarization current (TSDC) methods. The experimental results indicate that the Maxwell–Wagner interface polarization model cannot fully explain the charge accumulation at the interface. Due to the influence of the secondary curing, the functional groups in the post-curing epoxy resin can move and react with the partially reacted functional groups in the prefabricated epoxy resin layer, resulting in a weak cross-linking network at the interface. With the increase in temperature, the molecular chain segments in the weak cross-linked region of the interface become more active and introduce deep traps at the interface, thereby exacerbating the accumulation of interface charges. In addition, due to the influence of interface polarization and weak cross-linking, the ability of the interface charges to cause field strength distortions decreases with the increase in applied field strength. This research study can provide a theoretical reference for the interfacial space charge transport characteristics of epoxy-cured cross-linked layers and provide ideas for regulating interfacial cross-linking to suppress interfacial charge accumulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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12 pages, 4784 KiB  
Article
Theoretical and Experimental Insights of Benzimidazole Catalyzed by the Epoxy–Acrylic Acid Reaction
by Muhammad Jawwad Saif, Fazal-ur-Rehman, Shazia Abrar, Arruje Hameed, Nazeran Idrees and Muhammad Asif
Molecules 2022, 27(22), 7900; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27227900 - 15 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2347
Abstract
This study focuses on the experimental and molecular-level investigation of epoxy acrylate formation. Epoxy acrylate vinyl ester resin was prepared by a reaction of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resin and acrylic acid, using benzimidazole as a catalyst. It was confirmed that benzimidazole [...] Read more.
This study focuses on the experimental and molecular-level investigation of epoxy acrylate formation. Epoxy acrylate vinyl ester resin was prepared by a reaction of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resin and acrylic acid, using benzimidazole as a catalyst. It was confirmed that benzimidazole can effectively catalyze this reaction. FTIR analysis of the product revealed a simple addition esterification reaction between the epoxide group and carboxylic group of acrylic acid excluding the side reactions (e.g., etherification). DFT computational studies were performed to theoretically explore the insights of reaction mechanisms. The calculations revealed that the benzimidazole-catalyzed reaction dominates the uncatalyzed reaction. A comparison of calculated activation energies showed that concerted mechanisms are less significant in such reactions owing to their high activation barriers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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Review

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14 pages, 970 KiB  
Review
Curing Regime-Modulating Insulation Performance of Anhydride-Cured Epoxy Resin: A Review
by Jin Li, Hein Htet Aung and Boxue Du
Molecules 2023, 28(2), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020547 - 5 Jan 2023
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 4071
Abstract
Anhydride-cured bisphenol-A epoxy resin is widely used in the support, insulation and sealing key components of electrical and electronic equipment due to their excellent comprehensive performance. However, overheating and breakdown faults of epoxy resin-based insulation occur frequently under conditions of large current carrying [...] Read more.
Anhydride-cured bisphenol-A epoxy resin is widely used in the support, insulation and sealing key components of electrical and electronic equipment due to their excellent comprehensive performance. However, overheating and breakdown faults of epoxy resin-based insulation occur frequently under conditions of large current carrying and multiple voltage waveforms, which seriously threaten the safe and stable operation of the system. The curing regime, including mixture ratio and combination of curing time and temperature, is an important factor to determine the microstructure of epoxy resin, and also directly affects its macro performances. In this paper, the evolution of curing kinetic models of anhydride-cured epoxy resin was introduced to determine the primary curing regime. The influences of curing regime on the insulation performance were reviewed considering various mixture ratios and combinations of curing time and temperature. The curing regime-dependent microstructure was discussed and attributed to the mechanisms of insulation performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin Synthesis, Performance and Application Research)
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