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Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Flavours and Fragrances".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2023) | Viewed by 42868

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Prof. Dr. Erica Liberto

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Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 9, I-10125 Torino, Italy
Interests: food chemistry; gas chromatography; gas chromatography–mass spectrometry; chiral gas chromatography; headspace sampling; food flavors; food quality and authenticity; metabolomics; chemometrics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The volatile fraction of food (food volatilome) includes volatile compounds derived from metabolic pathways linked to primary materials, those reflecting the impact of pedoclimatic conditions (i.e., the geographical origin and climate), or those formed by technological processing that may include thermal treatments and/or microbial fermentations. The chemical characterization of the volatile fraction is a fundamental step toward a better definition of the sensory quality of a food, in determining shelf-life impact on primary metabolites and constituents, for origin authentication assessment, and for accurately evaluating the effects of the pre- and post-harvest treatments on vegetal foods. The volatilome can be considered a distinctive chemical signature of a product and thus can be used to better understand consumers’ preferences and acceptability. Volatile compounds can be perceived through the sensory receptors of the peripheral sense of smell, through ortho- and retro-nasal pathways, which, through signaling pathways in the nervous system, arouse the emotions, motivations, craving, and pleasure associated with food intake and its regulation. Indeed, aroma compounds are employed for nutritional objectives in reducing sugar and salt in foods, exploiting flavor modulation via the cross-modal interactions between different sensory modalities.

This Special Issue deals with all aspects of volatile compounds research in the food sector and/or the analytical methods and strategies adopted to profile, measure, identify, and monitor these analytes from food. Studies combining chemical fingerprinting and profiling with sensory evaluation and sensory quality are also welcome. I warmly invite colleagues to submit their original research or review articles.

Prof. Dr. Erica Liberto
Guest Editor

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Keywords

food volatilome
aroma profiling and fingerprinting
flavor and off-flavor
food quality decay
food processing
headspace analysis technology
gas chromatography
mass spectrometry
e-nose
cross-modal interactions
molecular sensory science

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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14 pages, 1702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aroma Profile Development in Beer Fermented with Azacca, Idaho-7, and Sultana Hops

by Anna K. McCabe, Jasmine K. Keyes, Heidi Hemetsberger, Chris V. Kurr, Bryan Albright, Michael G. Ward, Megan L. McKinley, Steven J. Breezley and Callie A. Cole

Molecules 2023, 28(15), 5802; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28155802 - 1 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1544

Abstract

Hops are among the most costly and environmentally impactful raw materials used in brewing, yet they play a crucial role in the aroma of beer. However, predicting beer aroma based on hop variety or hopping method remains arduous. This is partly because hop oils are unique for each hop variety, and they may be biotransformed by yeast enzymes during fermentation. Even slight molecular structure modifications can dramatically affect the organoleptic properties of beer. Through combined chemical and sensory analysis of dry-hopped beers prepared with different hop varieties (Azacca, Idaho-7, and Sultana), this work aimed to profile the aromas and the overall biotransformation processes taking place during fermentation. A total of 51 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were semi-quantified and monitored: 19 esters, 13 sesquiterpenes, 7 ketones, 7 alcohols, 4 monoterpenes, and 1 volatile acid. There were significant similarities in the measured analytes and perceived aromas of these beers, but one hop variety (Sultana) delivered an increased quantity of unique aromas and an increased concentration of volatiles in the headspace for the same quantity of hop pellets added. This work provides practical information to brewers who utilize hops in beer production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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15 pages, 1668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Different Ratios of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus on Fermentation Characteristics of Yogurt

by Tong Dan, Haimin Hu, Jiale Tian, Binbin He, Jiahui Tai and Yanyan He

Molecules 2023, 28(5), 2123; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052123 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5844

Abstract

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are industrially important bacteria that are widely used in the fermented food industry, especially in the manufacture of yogurt. The fermentation characteristics of LAB are an important factor affecting the physicochemical properties of yogurts. Here, different ratios of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus IMAU20312 and S. thermophilus IMAU80809 were compared with a commercial starter JD (control) for their effects on viable cell counts, pH values, titratable acidity (TA), viscosity and water holding capacity (WHC) of milk during fermentation. Sensory evaluation and flavour profiles were also determined at the end of fermentation. All samples had a viable cell count above 5.59 × 10⁷ CFU/mL at the end of fermentation, and a significant increase in TA and decrease in pH were observed. Viscosity, WHC and the sensory evaluation results of one treatment ratio (A3) were closer to the commercial starter control than the others. A total of 63 volatile flavour compounds and 10 odour-active (OAVs) compounds were detected in all treatment ratios and the control according to the results from solid-phase micro-extraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (SPME–GC–MS). Principal components analysis (PCA) also indicated that the flavour characteristics of the A3 treatment ratio were closer to the control. These results help us understand how the fermentation characteristics of yogurts are affected by the ratio of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus to S. thermophilus in starter cultures; this is useful for the development of value-added fermented dairy products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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12 pages, 2953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of the Quality in Ripe Fruits of Cuiguan Pear from Different Regions

by Miaoqiang Zhang, Bing Bai, Lei Chen, Haiyan Liu, Qiqi Jin, Liang Wang and Tao Feng

Molecules 2023, 28(4), 1733; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041733 - 11 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1490

Abstract

The Cuiguan pear is called “June snow” and the skin is thin; the meat is crisp and juicy; the taste is thick and fresh; and the juice is rich and sweet. In this study, the volatile organic compounds and the sensory and physicochemical parameters of the Cuiguan pear from four different regions of China (Sichuan (SC), Shangdong (SD), Chongming (CM), Zhuanghang (ZH)) were assessed. The highest differences in the physicochemical parameters were observed between four regions. The volatile fingerprints of GC-IMS showed great differences in the volatile of the Cuiguan pear, which suggested that the aroma of pears could be largely impacted by origin areas. (E)-ethyl-2-hexenoate can be used to distinguish between the ‘CM’ and pears from other regions. High contents of 2-heptanone, 1-pentanol, 1-butanol, 3-methylbutanol, butyl 2-methylbutanoate, heptyl acetate and butyl acetate were observed in the ‘SD’. Dimethyl trisulfide, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, 1-penten-3-one, beta-pinene, γ-terpinene, propanal, (e)-2-pentenal, (e)-2-heptenal, 1-pentanol and 3-methyl-1-pentanol were primarily contained in the ‘ZH’. Principal component analysis showed that there was very good discrimination based on the information obtained from GC-IMS for four samples. These findings were in agreement with the sensory analysis. In the opinion of the respondents to the consumer test, ‘ZH’ resulted in the most appreciated sample based on the average scores of the acceptability. This study provides some reference for the development and utilization of the Cuiguan pear. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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14 pages, 2328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Physicochemical Properties and Volatile Compounds of Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) Calyx during Different Drying Methods

by Nurul Hanisah Juhari, Helle Jakobe Martens and Mikael Agerlin Petersen

Molecules 2021, 26(20), 6260; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26206260 - 16 Oct 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3389

Abstract

Fresh roselle are high in moisture and deteriorate easily, which makes drying important for extending shelf-life and increasing availability. This study investigated the influence of different drying methods (oven-drying, freeze-drying, vacuum-drying, and sun-drying) on the quality of roselle calyx expressed as physicochemical properties (moisture content, water activity, soluble solids, color), volatile compounds, and microstructure. Oven-drying and freeze-drying reduced moisture content most while vacuum-drying and sun-drying were not as efficient. All drying methods except sun-drying resulted in water activities low enough to ensure safety and quality. Vacuum-drying had no impact on color of the dry calyx and only small impact on color of water extract of calyx. Drying reduced terpenes, aldehydes, and esters but increased furans. This is expected to reduce fruity, floral, spicy, and green odors and increase caramel-like aroma. Sun-drying produced more ketones, alcohols, and esters. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that freeze-drying preserved the cell structure better, and freeze-dried samples resembled fresh samples most compared to other drying techniques. The study concludes that freeze-drying should be considered as a suitable drying method, especially with respect to preservation of structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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22 pages, 2455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Freezing and Different Drying Methods on Volatile Profiles of Strawberry and Analysis of Volatile Compounds of Strawberry Commercial Jams

by Doaa Abouelenein, Ahmed M. Mustafa, Simone Angeloni, Germana Borsetta, Sauro Vittori, Filippo Maggi, Gianni Sagratini and Giovanni Caprioli

Molecules 2021, 26(14), 4153; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26144153 - 8 Jul 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3940

Abstract

Strawberry is the most consumed berry fruit worldwide due to its unique aroma and flavor. Drying fruits to produce a powder represents one of the possible conservation methods to extend their shelf-life. The aim of the present study was to compare the influence of freezing and different drying methods on the volatile profile of strawberry using the HS-SPME/GC–MS method, in addition to analysis of strawberry jam volatiles. A total of 165 compounds were identified, accounting for 85.03–96.88% of the total volatile compositions. Results and PCA showed that freezing and each drying process affected the volatile profile in a different way, and the most remarkable representative differential volatiles were ethyl hexanoate, hexyl acetate, (E)-2-hexenyl acetate, mesifurane, (E)-nerolidol, γ-decalactone, 1-hexanol, and acetoin. Shade air-dried, frozen, freeze-dried, and oven-dried 45 °C samples retained more of the fruity and sweet aromas of strawberry, representing more than 68% of the total aroma intensity according to the literature. In contrast, the microwave-drying method showed drastic loss of fruity esters. Strawberry jams demonstrated complete destruction of esters and alcohols in most jams, while terpenes were significantly increased. These findings help better understand the aroma of strawberry and provide a guide for the effects of drying, freezing, and jam processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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13 pages, 1867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Processing Effect and Characterization of Olive Oils from Spanish Wild Olive Trees (Olea europaea var. sylvestris)

by Francisco Espínola, Alfonso M. Vidal, Juan M. Espínola and Manuel Moya

Molecules 2021, 26(5), 1304; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051304 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

Wild olive trees have important potential, but, to date, the oil from wild olives has not been studied significantly, especially from an analytical point of view. In Spain, the wild olive tree is called “Acebuche” and its fruit “Acebuchina”. The objective of this work is to optimize the olive oil production process from the Acebuchina cultivar and characterize the oil, which could be marketed as healthy and functional food. A Box–Behnken experimental design with five central points was used, along with the Response Surface Methodology to obtain a mathematical experimental model. The oils from the Acebuchina cultivar meet the requirements for human consumption and have a good balance of fatty acids. In addition, the oils are rich in antioxidants and volatile compounds. The highest extraction yield, 12.0 g oil/100 g paste, was obtained at 90.0 min and the highest yield of phenolic compounds, 870.0 mg/kg, was achieved at 40.0 °C, and 90.0 min; but the maximum content of volatile compounds, 26.9 mg/kg, was obtained at 20 °C and 30.0 min. The oil yield is lower than that of commercial cultivars, but the contents of volatile and phenolic compounds is higher. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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16 pages, 1116 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Application of Lamiaceae Lindl. Promotes Aroma Compounds Formation, Sensory Properties, and Antioxidant Activity of Oat and Buckwheat-Based Cookies

by Małgorzata Starowicz, Ewa Lelujka, Ewa Ciska, Grzegorz Lamparski, Tomasz Sawicki and Małgorzata Wronkowska

Molecules 2020, 25(23), 5626; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25235626 - 29 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2865

Abstract

Aroma plays an important role in designing innovative functional foods. This study aimed to study the influence of incorporating herbs from the Lamiaceae family (sage, mint, rosemary, oregano, thyme) on aroma compound formation and sensory properties in oat-buckwheat products. DPPH, FRAP and PCL have been used to describe possible antioxidant activity changes and reduce power of cookies after Lamiaceae Lindl. addition. The volatiles analysis by HS-SPME-GC/MS, has shown that Lamiaceae addition significantly influences the volatiles composition (29 molecules) with a predominance of molecules with a positive sensorial impression. Cookies elaborated with herbs were characterized by a greater share of monoterpenes (e.g., limonene, eucalyptol), in the volatile profile than in control cookies. These compounds’ occurrence was closely correlated with the appearance of herbal odor and taste among sensory attributes in cookies with herbs addition. In contrast, a decrease of negative oil aroma and the bitter aftertaste was noted by a sensory panel. Moreover, in cookies of mint and rosemary, hexanal share decreased about 13 and 9.7-times, respectively. Considering all presented experiments, rosemary addition was the most effective in forming a positive aroma profile with high sensory acceptance and increased functional properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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17 pages, 1798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Volatile Compounds and Physicochemical Quality of Four Jabuticabas (Plinia sp.)

by Thais Pádua Freitas, Isabela Barroso Taver, Poliana Cristina Spricigo, Lucas Bueno do Amaral, Eduardo Purgatto and Angelo Pedro Jacomino

Molecules 2020, 25(19), 4543; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25194543 - 3 Oct 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3435

Abstract

The jabuticaba is a native Brazilian fruit that has aroused worldwide interest in terms of its nutritional composition and biological activity. However, research on the profile of volatile compounds (VOCs) emitted by these fruits is rare. This study presents the first identification of VOCs from four jabuticaba species. The aim of the study was to characterize the aromatic profile of the following species: ‘Sabará’ (Plinia jaboticaba), ‘Escarlate’ (Plinia phitrantha × Plinia cauliflora), ‘Otto Andersen’ (Plinia cauliflora), and ‘Esalq’ (Plinia phitrantha). The analysis was performed by headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS). Multivariate analysis techniques applying the partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and heatmap were used to compare the results. Fruit quality parameters were determined in terms of fresh mass (g), skin color, soluble solids, and titratable acidity. A total of 117 VOCs was identified including terpenoids, esters, alcohols, aldehydes, alkanes, ketones, and carboxylic acids, with 36 VOCs common to all four species. Terpenes were the majority for all jabuticabas with smaller contributions from other volatile classes, especially β-cubebene, β-elemene, and D-limonene for the ‘Otto Andersen’ jabuticaba. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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15 pages, 4038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Perceptual Interactions among Aldehydes in a Cheddar Cheese Matrix According to Odor Threshold and Aroma Intensity

by Chen Chen, Wenya Zhou, Haiyan Yu, Jiajie Yuan and Huaixiang Tian

Molecules 2020, 25(18), 4308; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184308 - 19 Sep 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3564

Abstract

To evaluate the contributions of 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylbutanal, 2-methylpropanal, and benzaldehyde in cheddar cheese models, the threshold values, optimal concentration ranges, and perceptual actions of these compounds were determined at various concentrations. The thresholds for 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylbutanal, 2-methylpropanal, and benzaldehyde in the cheese matrix were 150.31, 175.39, 150.66, and 500.21 μg/kg, respectively, which were significantly higher than the corresponding values in water. The optimal concentration ranges of these aldehydes were determined as 150–300, 175–325, 150–350, and 500–1500 μg/kg, respectively. Based on the results of the threshold method and Feller’s model, five binary mixtures were found to have synergistic effects, and only the pair of 2-methylpropanal and benzaldehyde was determined to have a masking effect. In addition, the synergistic olfactory effects between the four ternary mixtures and the quaternary mixture of these aldehydes were also assesSsed using Feller’s model. In a σ-τ plot analysis, synergism was usually observed when these odor pairs were at their threshold levels. In summary, the results suggested that perceptual interactions among these aldehydes exist in a cheese model variably with different concentrations and threshold ratios. This study will be helpful to a further understanding of the nutty aroma and improving the aroma quality of cheddar cheese. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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14 pages, 889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Aroma of an Instant White Tea Dried by Freeze Drying

by Hui Ni, Qing-Xiang Jiang, Ting Zhang, Gao-Ling Huang, Li-Jun Li and Feng Chen

Molecules 2020, 25(16), 3628; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163628 - 10 Aug 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4088

Abstract

The aroma of an instant white tea (IWT) was extracted through simultaneous distillation–extraction (SDE) and analyzed by sensory evaluation, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry (GC-MS-O), aroma reconstruction, omission test and synergistic interaction analysis. Sensory evaluation showed the IWT was dominated with floral and sweet notes. The SDE extract had the aroma similar to the IWT. The main volatile components in the SDE extract were benzyl alcohol, linalool, hotrienol, geraniol, α-terpineol, coumarin, camphene, benzeneacetaldehyde, 2-hexanone, cis-jasmin lactone and phenylethyl alcohol. GC-MS-O and aroma reconstruction experiments showed 16 aroma-active compounds. Linalool, trans-β-damascenone and camphene were the major contributors to floral, sweet and green notes based on flavor dilution analysis and omission test. Linalool and trans-β-damascenone had synergistic effect to promote floral and sweet notes. Camphene and trans-β-damascenone had synergistic effect to reduce green and sweet notes. The study helps to understand the aroma of IWT and antagonism interactions among aroma-active volatiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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13 pages, 289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Volatile Compounds and Sugar Content in Three Polish Regional Ciders with Pear Addition

by Jarosław Kliks, Joanna Kawa-Rygielska, Alan Gasiński, Adam Głowacki and Antoni Szumny

Molecules 2020, 25(16), 3564; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163564 - 5 Aug 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3198

Abstract

Aroma plays important part in cider acceptability to the consumer. In this study, techniques such as headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME), which has been coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, have been used to assess what changes in the volatilome occur during fermentation of three apple cultivars (Cortland, Gala, Idared) with and without addition of pear (Konferencja) juice addition. Analysis of volatiles has shown that temperature of fermentation, apple variety and pear juice addition have significant influences on the volatile compositions of the acquired ciders. Ciders prepared in laboratory conditions fermented at 15 °C were characterized by a greater share of esters, such as ethyl hexanoate, ethyl decanoate and ethyl dodecanoate, in volatile profile (66.24–79.58%) than ciders fermented at 20 °C (58.81–77.22%). Ciders fermented at a higher temperature were characterized by a greater share of alcohols, such as phenylethyl alcohol and hexan-1-ol (18.34–36.7%) than ciders fermented at a lower temperature (16.07–25.35%). In the ciders prepared from pear (20% w/w) and apple (80% w/w) juice, the presence of esters, such as ethyl (2E, 4Z)-deca-2,4-dienoate, characterized by a pear aroma, could be noted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

Review

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18 pages, 1763 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Relation between Drying Conditions and the Development of Volatile Compounds in Saffron (Crocus sativus)

by Teresa Soledad Cid-Pérez, Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón, Carlos Enrique Ochoa-Velasco, Addí Rhode Navarro-Cruz, Paola Hernández-Carranza and Raúl Avila-Sosa

Molecules 2021, 26(22), 6954; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26226954 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5134

Abstract

Saffron is derived from the stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus L. The drying process is the most important post-harvest step for converting C. sativus stigmas into saffron. The aim of this review is to evaluate saffron’s post-harvest conditions in the development of volatile compounds and its aroma descriptors. It describes saffron’s compound generation by enzymatic pathways and degradation reactions. Saffron quality is described by their metabolite’s solubility and the determination of picrocrocin, crocins, and safranal. The drying process induce various modifications in terms of color, flavor and aroma, which take place in the spice. It affects the aromatic species chemical profile. In the food industry, saffron is employed for its sensory attributes, such as coloring, related mainly to crocins (mono-glycosyl esters or di-glycosyl polyene). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Volatile Compounds and Smell Chemicals (Odor and Aroma) of Food—Second Edition)

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