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Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural Products Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 21006

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Dr. Lorenzo Cecchi

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Department of NEUROFARBA, University degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy
Interests: phenolic compounds; volatile compounds; fortification of food with nutraceutical compounds; food technology; food quality authentication; food byproduct re-use
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Dr. Maria Bellumori

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Department of NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, Via Ugo Schiff 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy
Interests: natural antioxidants; nutraceutical sciences; food chemistry; nutrition and human health; phenolic compounds; extraction and characterization of bioactive molecules
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The interest in virgin olive oil has constantly and strongly increased over the last few decades, mainly thanks to the unique and delicate flavor and the nutraceutical properties of this vegetable oil. All of these properties have been associated with the presence of some classes of minor compounds, particularly phenolic and volatile compounds, in addition to the peculiar fatty acid composition, which is very rich in monounsaturated fatty acids. Searching for innovative processes capable of extracting virgin olive oil with higher and higher sensorial and nutraceutical properties is one of the current concerns of producers and researchers. At the same time, the possibility of re-using byproducts containing high levels of hydroxytyrosol, secoiridoid derivatives, and other phenolic compounds has recently been strongly investigated with the aim of rendering the olive oil production chain more economically and environmentally sustainable. Virgin olive oil also has the peculiarity of being the only food product to have a standardized protocol (the so-called Panel Test) for the analysis of sensory attributes that are used to classify samples according to the recognized commercial categories. Much effort is being made by researchers to develop chemical/statistical approaches that support the Panel Test in virgin olive oil classification and can be used to authenticate the geographic and botanical origin of virgin olive oils.

This Special Issue aims to cover advances in research on: i) innovations in processing olives to obtain high-quality extra virgin olive oil; ii) the possibility of re-using byproducts from olive oil extraction; iii) quality control, e.g., developing chemical/statistical methods for virgin olive classification according to the current legislation and authentication of the geographic and botanical origin; and iv) the nutraceutical potentiality of virgin olive oil, including the biological and health-promoting properties possessed by the phenolic compounds present in this vegetable oil.

Dr. Lorenzo Cecchi
Dr. Maria Bellumori
Guest Editors

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Keywords

virgin olive oil quality authentication
byproduct management
volatile compounds
phenolic compounds
sensory analysis
health-promoting properties
biological activity
authentication of origin
innovative extraction processes

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Related Special Issue

Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile II in Molecules (7 articles)

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 2873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endogenous n-Alkanes in Vegetable Oils: Validation of a Rapid Offline SPE-GC-FID Method, Comparison with Online LC-GC-FID and Potential for Olive Oil Quality Control

by Ana Srbinovska, Paolo Lucci, Chiara Conchione, Laura Barp and Sabrina Moret

Molecules 2023, 28(11), 4393; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28114393 - 28 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1529

Abstract

The potential of endogenous n-alkane profiling for the assessment of extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) adulteration (blends with cheaper vegetable oils) has been studied by relatively few authors. Analytical methods used for this purpose often involve tedious and solvent-intensive sample preparation prior to analytical determination, making them unattractive. A rapid and solvent-sparing offline solid phase extraction (SPE) gas chromatography (GC) flame ionization detection (FID) method for the determination of endogenous n-alkanes in vegetable oils was, therefore, optimized and validated. The optimized method demonstrated good performance characteristics in terms of linearity (R² > 0.999), recovery (on average 94%), and repeatability (residual standard deviation, RSD < 11.9%). The results were comparable to those obtained with online high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-GC- FID ( RSD < 5.1%). As an example of an application to prove the potentiality of endogenous n-alkanes in revealing frauds, the data set obtained from 16 EVOO, 9 avocado oils (AVO), and 13 sunflower oils (SFO), purchased from the market, was subjected to statistical analysis and principal component analysis. Two powerful indices, namely (n-C₂₉ + n-C₃₁)/(n-C₂₅ + n-C₂₆) and n-C₂₉/n-C₂₅, were found to reveal the addition of 2% SFO in EVOO and 5% AVO in EVOO, respectively. Further studies are needed to confirm the validity of these promising indices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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15 pages, 2442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Hazelnut and Almond Adulteration in Olive Oil: An Approach by qPCR

by Sonia Ramos-Gómez, María D. Busto and Natividad Ortega

Molecules 2023, 28(10), 4248; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28104248 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2154

Abstract

Virgin olive oil (VOO), characterized by its unique aroma, flavor, and health benefits, is subject to adulteration with the addition of oils obtained from other edible species. The consumption of adulterated olive oil with nut species, such as hazelnut or almond, leads to health and safety issues for consumers, due to their high allergenic potential. To detect almond and hazelnut in olive oil, several amplification systems have been analyzed by qPCR assay with a SYBR Green post-PCR melting curve analysis. The systems selected were Cora1F2/R2 and Madl, targeting the genes coding the allergenic protein Cor a 1 (hazelnut) and Pru av 1 (almond), respectively. These primers revealed adequate specificity for each of the targeted species. In addition, the result obtained demonstrated that this methodology can be used to detect olive oil adulteration with up to 5% of hazelnut or almond oil by a single qPCR assay, and with a level as low as 2.5% by a nested-qPCR assay. Thus, the present research has shown that the SYBR-based qPCR assay can be a rapid, precise, and accurate method to detect adulteration in olive oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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19 pages, 2022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Heating Temperature of High-Quality Arbequina, Picual, Manzanilla and Cornicabra Olive Oils on Changes in Nutritional Indices of Lipid, Tocopherol Content and Triacylglycerol Polymerization Process

by Dominik Kmiecik, Monika Fedko, Justyna Małecka, Aleksander Siger and Przemysław Łukasz Kowalczewski

Molecules 2023, 28(10), 4247; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28104247 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2924

Abstract

The aim of the study was to determine the stability and heat resistance of extra premium olive oil. The study material consisted of six extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) obtained from Spain. Four samples were single-strain olive oils: Arbequina, Picual, Manzanilla, and Cornicabra. Two samples were a coupage of Arbequina and Picual varieties: Armonia (70% Arbequina and 30% Picual) and Sensation (70% Picual and 30% Arbequina). Olive oil samples were heated at 170 °C and 200 °C in a pan (thin layer model). In all samples, changes in indexes of lipid nutritional quality (PUFA/SFA, index of atherogenicity, index of thrombogenicity, and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio), changes in tocopherol, total polar compounds content, and triacylglycerol polymers were determined. Heating olive oil in a thin layer led to its degradation and depended on the temperature and the type of olive oil. Increasing the temperature from 170 to 200 °C resulted in significantly higher degradation of olive oil. At 200 °C, deterioration of lipid nutritional indices, total tocopherol degradation, and formation of triacylglycerol polymers were observed. A twofold increase in the polar fraction was also observed compared to samples heated at 170 °C. The most stable olive oils were Cornicabra and Picual. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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17 pages, 2886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolomics Insights into the Differential Response of Breast Cancer Cells to the Phenolic Compounds Hydroxytyrosol and Luteolin

by Maite Garcia-Guasch, Eduard Escrich, Raquel Moral and Iola F. Duarte

Molecules 2023, 28(9), 3886; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28093886 - 4 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2320

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two phenolic compounds found in extra virgin olive oil, hydroxytyrosol (HT) and luteolin (LUT), on the metabolism of breast cancer (BC) cells of different molecular subtypes. An untargeted metabolomics approach was used to characterize the metabolic responses of both triple-negative MDA-MB-231 cells and hormone-responsive MCF-7 cells to treatment with these phenols. Notably, while some effects were common across both cell types, others were dependent on the cell type, highlighting the importance of cellular metabolic phenotype. Common effects included stimulation of mitochondrial metabolism, acetate production, and formate overflow. On the other hand, glucose metabolism and lactate production were differentially modulated. HT and LUT appeared to inhibit glycolysis and promote the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells, while MCF-7 cells exhibited higher glycolytic flux when treated with phenolic compounds. Another significant difference was observed in lipid metabolism. Treated MDA-MB-231 cells displayed increased levels of neutral lipids (likely stored in cytosolic droplets), whereas treatment of MCF-7 cells with HT led to a decrease in triacylglycerols. Additionally, glutathione levels increased in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with HT or LUT, as well as in MCF-7 cells treated with LUT. In contrast, in HT-treated MCF-7 cells, glutathione levels decreased, indicating different modulation of cellular redox status. Overall, this work provides new insights into the metabolic impact of HT and LUT on different BC cell subtypes, paving the way for a better understanding of the nutritional relevance of these phenolic compounds in the context of BC prevention and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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11 pages, 1460 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluation of Novel Rapid Analytical Methods to Categorize Extra Virgin Olive Oil Based on the Coulometrically Determined Antioxidant Capacity and on the Spectrophotometric Assessment of Phenolic Compounds

by Francesco Siano, Gianluca Picariello, Anna Sofia Sammarco, Giuseppe Celano, Tonino Caruso and Ermanno Vasca

Molecules 2023, 28(7), 3108; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28073108 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1465

Abstract

The lack of a practical “fit for the purpose” analytical protocol is the main limitation that has hampered the exploitation of the EFSA analytical health claim on the extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) biophenols, more than ten years since its introduction. In this work, two analytical methods recently developed in our laboratories for categorizing EVOO have been evaluated on a set of 16 samples from Cilento (Campania Region, southern Italy) and compared to other commonly used quality indexes. The Coulometrically Determined Antioxidant Capacity (CDAC) is associated with the component responsible for the health-promoting properties and oxidative stability of EVOO. The Fast Blue BB (FBBB) assay consists of the spectrophotometric (420 nm) determination of biophenols-FBBB diazonium coupling products generated in unfractionated EVOO. The FBBB assay and HPLC-UV reference method provide values highly correlated to each other. Fourteen of sixteen EVOO samples with CDAC > 10 mmol kg⁻¹ and FBBB absorbance > 0.5 had HPLC-determined biophenols > 250 mg kg⁻¹, and therefore eligible for the EFSA health claim. Consistently, two EVOO samples with HPLC-determined biophenols < 250 mg kg⁻¹ had CDAC values and FBBB absorbance below the respective thresholds. CDAC and FBBB assays are proposed individually or in combination as methods to categorize EVOO samples in alternative to HPLC-UV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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16 pages, 1377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virgin Olive Oil By-Product Valorization: An Insight into the Phenolic Composition of Olive Seed Extracts from Three Cultivars as Sources of Bioactive Molecules

by Lorenzo Cecchi, Giulia Ghizzani, Maria Bellumori, Carmen Lammi, Bruno Zanoni and Nadia Mulinacci

Molecules 2023, 28(6), 2776; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062776 - 19 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2183

Abstract

Olives are very rich in phenolic compounds with important health-promoting properties. The profile and content of phenols in olive pulp and virgin olive oil are strongly influenced by the fruit ripening degree, but little is known concerning the evolution of phenolic compounds in the seed. In this work, the phenolic composition of seed from Tuscan cultivars (Frantoio, Moraiolo, Leccino) was studied over maturation. Starting from each seed sample, a phenolic extract was prepared and analyzed by HPLC-DAD-MS. Nüzhenide and nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside were by far the most abundant phenolic compounds; their content reached up to 46 g/kg in dry seeds, although this diminished in the final stage of fruit maturation. At the same time, the phenolic composition of the pulp was also characterized over the course of maturation, showing that oleuropein was by far the most abundant compound, with concentrations comparable to those of nüzhenide and nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside in the seeds. Overall, the total amount of phenols in seed dry extracts was significant, reaching approx. 100 g/kg. The chemically characterized dry phenolic extracts from seeds could be used for future biological assays aimed at evaluating the potential bioactivities of these phytocomplexes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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26 pages, 3287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining Zeolites with Early-Maturing Annual Legume Cover Crops in Rainfed Orchards: Effects on Yield, Fatty Acid Composition and Polyphenolic Profile of Olives and Olive Oil

by Sandra Martins, Ermelinda Silva, Cátia Brito, Luís Pinto, Carlos Martins-Gomes, Alexandre Gonçalves, Margarida Arrobas, Manuel Ângelo Rodrigues, Carlos M. Correia and Fernando M. Nunes

Molecules 2023, 28(6), 2545; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062545 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2131

Abstract

Under climate change threats, there is a growing need to adapt the conventional agronomic practices used in rainfed olive orchards by sustainable practices, in order to ensure adequate crop yield and olive oil quality and to preserve soil health. Therefore, for two years, the effects of conventional tillage practice (T) and two sustainable soil management strategies, a leguminous cover crop (LC) and its combination with natural zeolites (ZL), on the yield, fatty acid composition, polyphenolic profile and quality indices of olive fruits and oil were evaluated. Crop yield was significantly increased by LC and ZL in the first year. Although in the second year no significant differences were verified, the cumulative yield increased significantly by 31.6% and 35.5% in LC and ZL trees, respectively. LC enhanced the moisture and size of olives, while ZL increased, in general, the concentrations of oleuropein, verbascoside, caffeic acid and epicatechin, as well the oleic/linoleic ratio in fruits and the levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycol, tyrosol, verbascoside and caffeic acid in olive oil. Despite the higher concentration of total phenols in the fruits and oil from T trees in the warmer and dryer year, the quality of the oil decreased, mainly when compared with ZL, as evidenced by the peroxide value and K232 and K270 coefficients. In short, both sustainable soil management strategies appear to be promising practices to implement in olive orchards under rainfed conditions, but the innovative strategy of combining zeolites with legume cover crops, first reported in the present study, confers advantages from a nutritional and technological point of view. Nevertheless, studies subjected to the long-term use of these practices should be conducted to ensure the sustainability of the crop yield and olive oil quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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21 pages, 9017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry for Probing the Isomeric Forms of Oleocanthal and Oleacin in Extra Virgin Olive Oils

by Ramona Abbattista, Ilario Losito, Graziana Basile, Andrea Castellaneta, Giovanni Ventura, Cosima Damiana Calvano and Tommaso R. I. Cataldi

Molecules 2023, 28(5), 2066; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052066 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2030

Abstract

Reversed-phase liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization with Fourier-transform single and tandem mass spectrometry (RPLC-ESI-FTMS and FTMS/MS) were employed for the structural characterization of oleocanthal (OLEO) and oleacin (OLEA), two of the most important bioactive secoiridoids occurring in extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs). The existence of several isoforms of OLEO and OLEA was inferred from the chromatographic separation, accompanied, in the case of OLEA, by minor peaks due to oxidized OLEO recognized as oleocanthalic acid isoforms. The detailed analysis of the product ion tandem MS spectra of deprotonated molecules ([M-H]⁻) was unable to clarify the correlation between chromatographic peaks and specific OLEO/OLEA isoforms, including two types of predominant dialdehydic compounds, named Open Forms II, containing a double bond between carbon atoms C8 and C10, and a group of diasteroisomeric closed-structure (i.e., cyclic) isoforms, named Closed Forms I. This issue was addressed by H/D exchange (HDX) experiments on labile H atoms of OLEO and OLEA isoforms, performed using deuterated water as a co-solvent in the mobile phase. HDX unveiled the presence of stable di-enolic tautomers, in turn providing key evidence for the occurrence, as prevailing isoforms, of Open Forms II of OLEO and OLEA, different from those usually considered so far as the main isoforms of both secoiridoids (having a C=C bond between C8 and C9). It is expected that the new structural details inferred for the prevailing isoforms of OLEO and OLEA will help in understanding the remarkable bioactivity exhibited by the two compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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16 pages, 4288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Oleocanthal-Low EVOO and Oleocanthal against Amyloid-β and Related Pathology in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease

by Ihab M. Abdallah, Kamal M. Al-Shami, Amer E. Alkhalifa, Nour F. Al-Ghraiybah, Claudia Guillaume and Amal Kaddoumi

Molecules 2023, 28(3), 1249; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28031249 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3088

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by several pathological hallmarks, including the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. Growing evidence support the neuroprotective effects of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) and oleocanthal (OC). In this work, we aimed to evaluate and compare the beneficial effects of equivalent doses of OC-low EVOO (0.5 mg total phenolic content/kg) and OC (0.5 mg OC/kg) on Aβ and related pathology and to assess their effect on neuroinflammation in a 5xFAD mouse model with advanced pathology. Homozygous 5xFAD mice were fed with refined olive oil (ROO), OC-low EVOO, or OC for 3 months starting at the age of 3 months. Our findings demonstrated that a low dose of 0.5 mg/kg EVOO-phenols and OC reduced brain Aβ levels and neuroinflammation by suppressing the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway and reducing the activation of NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes. On the other hand, only OC suppressed the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts/high-mobility group box 1 (RAGE/HMGB1) pathway. In conclusion, our results indicated that while OC-low EVOO demonstrated a beneficial effect against Aβ-related pathology in 5xFAD mice, EVOO rich with OC could provide a higher anti-inflammatory effect by targeting multiple mechanisms. Collectively, diet supplementation with EVOO or OC could prevent, halt progression, and treat AD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virgin Olive Oil: Processing, Byproducts, Quality Control, and Nutraceutical Profile)

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