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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 December 2022) | Viewed by 66166

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Cord Heuer

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Guest Editor

1. Director EpiCentre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
2. Director OIE Collaborating Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, PO Box 11222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Interests: teaching and research in veterinary epidemiology and public health such as leptospirosis, rabies, paratuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease or bovine viral diarrhea; modelling transmission dynamics and economic consequences of infectious diseases in humans and animals
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Magda Dunowska

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Guest Editor

Infectious Disease Team Leader, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Interests: veterinary virology and infection control; viruses affecting both domestic animals and wildlife; equine herpesviruses; canine respiratory viruses; canine parvoviruses; feline coronaviruses; novel animal papillomaviruses; arteriviruses; assessment of viricidal activity of various physical and chemical treatments (viral clearance studies)

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Scientists with an interest in infectious pathogens have applied epidemiology and surveillance to controlling disease since many years. Following the recent devastating pandemics of African swine fever (ASF) or coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) however, even the public now uses epidemiological terminology and demands better surveillance for preventing future pathogen emergence and spread beyond borders.

It is therefore timely and proactive for Pathogens to publish this Special Issue. We hope that the collection of papers in this issue will provide insights into the ecological behavior of pathogens and their impact on human and animal populations. Such knowledge can be derived from a vast amount of publicly available surveillance data and through well designed population-based studies.

As guest editors, we are excited about this Special Issue. We would like to call on our colleagues in science to submit work essays about the behavior of pathogens and hosts in their natural environment where both potential causes and consequences of infection can be measured at a population scale. What can we learn from the recent examples of pathogen emergence and spread such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) among people or ASF virus among domestic and wild pig populations in Asia and Europe? Should we implement more targeted surveillance for selected pathogens? If so, what pathogens would be targeted and among which host populations? Targeted surveillance may have captured the contamination of live pigs and food products with ASF virus en-route to their destinations, potentially preventing outbreaks of ASF in China and Europe. Intelligent digital solutions are required to enhance early warning systems for mitigating pathogen emergence that jeopardise entire industries and the health of large populations. For example, could the emergence of Hendra virus in Australia or Nipah virus in Malaysia, and their associated human and animal deaths have been foreseen? Can we predict which pathogens are most likely to cross the species barrier, or when and where it is going to happen? Which of the initial spill-over events will die off, and which will lead to epidemic or pandemic spread into new host populations? The ability to apply predictive models to infer such information relies on our understanding of drivers of pathogen emergence, which in turn are linked to the complex relationships between the pathogens, their hosts and the environment.

As scientists we are aware of the need to focus our investigative efforts on pathogens in wildlife populations, their zoonotic potential, transmission mechanisms, determinants of spread, economic impacts, and options for control. This Special Issue provides a forum for publishing such work.

Both original research and review articles are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Cord Heuer
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Magda Dunowska
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

host populations
cross-species transmission
determinants of infection and spread
public health
economic consequences

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review, Other

2 pages, 149 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Acknowledgements upon Conclusion of the Pathogens Special Issue “Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases”

by Cord Heuer and Magdalena Dunowska

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020280 - 8 Feb 2023

Viewed by 961

Abstract

One Health is a popular headline for an all-inclusive concept of our scientific work [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

Research

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12 pages, 1406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mosquito Communities Vary across Landscape and Vertical Strata in Indian River County, Florida

by Bryan V. Giordano, Anthony Cruz, Daniel W. Pérez-Ramos, Martina M. Ramos, Yasmin Tavares and Eric P. Caragata

Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1575; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10121575 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3900

Abstract

Mosquito and arbovirus surveillance is essential to the protection of public health. A majority of surveys are undertaken at ground level. However, mosquitoes shelter, breed, and quest for hosts across vertical strata, thus limiting our ability to fully describe mosquito and arboviral communities. To elucidate patterns of mosquito vertical stratification, canopy traps were constructed to sample mosquitoes at heights of 1.5, 5.0, and 8.7 m across three different landscape types in a Florida coastal conservation area. We assessed trapping efforts using individual-based rarefaction and extrapolation. The effects of height, landscape, site location, and sampling date on mosquito community composition were parsed out using permutational ANOVA on a Hellinger-transformed Bray–Curtis dissimilarity abundance matrix. Lastly, a generalized linear mixed effects model (GLMM) was used to explore species-specific vertical patterns. We observed differences in sampling effort and community composition structure across various heights and landscapes. Our GLMM revealed significant effects of trap height for Aedes taeniorhynchus, Anopheles crucians, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, and Culex coronator, but not for Culex nigripalpus, the ultra-dominant species present in this area. Together these data provide evidence that height and landscape significantly affect mosquito community structures and highlight a need to develop sampling regimes to target specific vector and nuisance species at their preferred height and across different landscape types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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14 pages, 3066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Variability of Canine Parvoviruses from a Selected Population of Dogs and Cats in Sri Lanka

by Rasika Jinadasa, Sayani Ghosh, Simon Hills, Thushini Premalal, Ushani Atapattu, Manohari Fuward, Wasantha Kalupahana and Magdalena Dunowska

Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091102 - 29 Aug 2021

Viewed by 3276

Abstract

The aim of the study was to identify canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) subtypes circulating among a selected population of domestic dogs and cats in Sri Lanka and to investigate the evolutionary patterns among Sri Lankan viruses in the context of contemporary global CPV-2 sequences. Altogether, 40/61 (65.6%) samples tested were positive for CPV-2 DNA, including 31/48 (64.6%) dogs and 9/13 (69%) cats. All three subtypes (CPV-2a, CPV-2b and CPV-2c) were detected, with CPV-2a being most common. International median joining haplotype network of 291 CPV-2 sequences suggested that there was little barrier for CPV-2 moving between different geographical regions worldwide, including Sri Lanka, and that there was no correlation between the genetic structure within the molecular network and the decade of sample collection. By contrast, there was correlation between CPV-2 subtype and genetic structure, both within the international network and within the network built from 31 Sri Lankan CPV-2 sequences only. The structure within the latter was not correlated with the location of the veterinary clinic where the samples were submitted, the age or species of the host. Altogether, we have shown that there is considerable variability of CPV-2 genotypes circulating in Sri Lanka, which is likely driven by both local evolution and introduction from other countries. The similarity of CPV-2 obtained from cats and dogs suggests that cats may play a role in the epidemiology of CPV-2 in Sri Lanka. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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12 pages, 616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Three-Year Biocrime Sanitary Surveillance on Illegally Imported Companion Animals

by Monia Cocchi, Patrizia Danesi, Gabrita De Zan, Marta Leati, Laura Gagliazzo, Margherita Ruggeri, Manlio Palei, Alessandro Bremini, Marie-Christin Rossmann, Melanie Lippert-Petscharnig, Michael-Dieter Mansfeld, Silvia Deotto, Sofia Leardini, Federica Gobbo, Paolo Zucca and Paola De Benedictis

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 1047; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081047 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3637

Abstract

The illegal trade of companion animals in the European Union poses several legal, ethical and health issues to the entire community. In the framework of the Biocrime Interreg project between Italy and Austria, we surveyed puppies and kittens confiscated at the borders to identify the most frequent pathogens associated with (i) the risk of spread within the shelter, (ii) the development of fatal disease and (iii) the zoonotic potential. From January 2018 to December 2020, we examined a total of 613 puppies and 62 kittens coming from 44 requisitions. Feces, skin specimens and blood sera from confiscated animals were tested to verify the presence of major infections and to assess the rabies post-vaccination immunity. Out of the total of individuals under investigation, necropsies and laboratory investigations were also performed on 79 puppies and three kittens that had died during the observation period. Results indicated a high prevalence of Canine Parvovirus (CPV) and Giardia spp. infections, CPV as the most likely cause of fatal gastroenteritis in puppies and Salmonella and Microsporum canis as major zoonotic pathogens. Conversely, both extended spectrum beta lactamases Escherichia coli and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains as rare findings. Results highlighted that illegal animal trade could expose the human population to potential zoonotic risk and naïve animal population to potentially disrupting epidemic waves, both of these issues being largely underestimated when buying companion animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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18 pages, 2283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serological Evidence of Human Orthohantavirus Infections in Barbados, 2008 to 2016

by Kirk Osmond Douglas, Thelma Alafia Samuels, Rommel Iheozor-Ejiofor, Olli Vapalahti, Tarja Sironen and Marquita Gittens-St. Hilaire

Pathogens 2021, 10(5), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10050571 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3121

Abstract

Background: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is well-known in South and North America; however, not enough data exist for the Caribbean. The first report of clinical orthohantavirus infection was obtained in Barbados, but no other evidence of clinical orthohantavirus infections among adults in the Caribbean has been documented. Methods: Using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests followed by confirmatory testing with immunofluorescent assays (IFA), immunochromatographic (ICG) tests, and pseudotype focus reduction neutralization tests (pFRNT), we retrospectively and prospectively detected orthohantavirus-specific antibodies among patients with febrile illness in Barbados. Results: The orthohantavirus prevalence rate varied from 5.8 to 102.6 cases per 100,000 persons among febrile patients who sought medical attention annually between 2008 and 2016. Two major orthohantavirus epidemics occurred in Barbados during 2010 and 2016. Peak orthohantavis infections were observed observed during the rainy season (August) and prevalence rates were significantly higher in females than males and in patients from urban parishes than rural parishes. Conclusions: Orthohantavirus infections are still occurring in Barbados and in some patients along with multiple pathogen infections (CHIKV, ZIKV, DENV and Leptospira). Orthohantavirus infections are more prevalent during periods of high rainfall (rainy season) with peak transmission in August; females are more likely to be infected than males and infections are more likely among patients from urban rather than rural parishes in Barbados. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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11 pages, 5003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Variation in the Glycoprotein B Sequence of Equid Herpesvirus 5 among Horses of Various Breeds at Polish National Studs

by Karol Stasiak, Magdalena Dunowska, Steven Trewick and Jerzy Rola

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030322 - 9 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2530

Abstract

Equid herpesvirus 5 (EHV-5) is one of two γ-herpesviruses that commonly infect horses worldwide. The objective of the study was to estimate the genetic variability within EHV-5 viruses circulating among horses in Poland. Partial glycoprotein B (gB) sequences from 92 Polish horses from 13 studs throughout Poland were compared to each other and to three EHV-5 sequences from other countries. Despite the overall high level of conservation, considerable variability was observed around the putative furin cleavage site. Based on phylogenetic analysis, the viruses clustered within two major lineages (A and B), with further sub-clustering within group A. The clustering of EHV-5 sequences was independent of age or geographical origin of the sampled horses. Recombination was identified as one of the factors contributing to the genomic heterogeneity. Viruses from unweaned foals were more similar to viruses from other foals at the same stud than to viruses form their dams, suggesting the horizontal transfer and/or evolution of EHV-5 within individual hosts. Our data indicate that the gB sequence is not suitable for tracking the source of EHV-5 infection. Further research is needed to elucidate the importance of the sequence variability around the EHV-5 gB furin cleavage site on the biology of the virus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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Review

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24 pages, 1129 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

by Jane E. Sykes, Krystle L. Reagan, Jarlath E. Nally, Renee L. Galloway and David A. Haake

Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11040395 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 15906

Abstract

A One Health approach to the epidemiology, management, surveillance, and control of leptospirosis relies on accessible and accurate diagnostics that can be applied to humans and companion animals and livestock. Diagnosis should be multifaceted and take into account exposure risk, clinical presentation, and multiple direct and/or indirect diagnostic approaches. Methods of direct detection of Leptospira spp. include culture, histopathology and immunostaining of tissues or clinical specimens, and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs). Indirect serologic methods to detect leptospiral antibodies include the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and lateral flow methods. Rapid diagnostics that can be applied at the point-of-care; NAAT and lateral flow serologic tests are essential for management of acute infection and control of outbreaks. Culture is essential to an understanding of regional knowledge of circulating strains, and we discuss recent improvements in methods for cultivation, genomic sequencing, and serotyping. We review the limitations of NAATs, MAT, and other diagnostic approaches in the context of our expanding understanding of the diversity of pathogenic Leptospira spp. Novel approaches are needed, such as loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-based approaches to leptospiral nucleic acid detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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32 pages, 796 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC): An Overview of Virulence and Pathogenesis Factors, Zoonotic Potential, and Control Strategies

by Dipak Kathayat, Dhanashree Lokesh, Sochina Ranjit and Gireesh Rajashekara

Pathogens 2021, 10(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040467 - 12 Apr 2021

Cited by 176 | Viewed by 16171

Abstract

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) causes colibacillosis in avian species, and recent reports have suggested APEC as a potential foodborne zoonotic pathogen. Herein, we discuss the virulence and pathogenesis factors of APEC, review the zoonotic potential, provide the current status of antibiotic resistance and progress in vaccine development, and summarize the alternative control measures being investigated. In addition to the known virulence factors, several other factors including quorum sensing system, secretion systems, two-component systems, transcriptional regulators, and genes associated with metabolism also contribute to APEC pathogenesis. The clear understanding of these factors will help in developing new effective treatments. The APEC isolates (particularly belonging to ST95 and ST131 or O1, O2, and O18) have genetic similarities and commonalities in virulence genes with human uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) and neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) and abilities to cause urinary tract infections and meningitis in humans. Therefore, the zoonotic potential of APEC cannot be undervalued. APEC resistance to almost all classes of antibiotics, including carbapenems, has been already reported. There is a need for an effective APEC vaccine that can provide protection against diverse APEC serotypes. Alternative therapies, especially the virulence inhibitors, can provide a novel solution with less likelihood of developing resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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18 pages, 1462 KiB

Open AccessReview

Rabies in Our Neighbourhood: Preparedness for an Emerging Infectious Disease

by Michael P. Ward and Victoria J. Brookes

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030375 - 20 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5395

Abstract

Emerging infectious disease (EID) events have the potential to cause devastating impacts on human, animal and environmental health. A range of tools exist which can be applied to address EID event detection, preparedness and response. Here we use a case study of rabies in Southeast Asia and Oceania to illustrate, via nearly a decade of research activities, how such tools can be systematically integrated into a framework for EID preparedness. During the past three decades, canine rabies has spread to previously free areas of Southeast Asia, threatening the rabies-free status of countries such as Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea and Australia. The program of research to address rabies preparedness in the Oceanic region has included scanning and surveillance to define the emerging nature of canine rabies within the Southeast Asia region; field studies to collect information on potential reservoir species, their distribution and behaviour; participatory and sociological studies to identify priorities for disease response; and targeted risk assessment and disease modelling studies. Lessons learnt include the need to develop methods to collect data in remote regions, and the need to continuously evaluate and update requirements for preparedness in response to evolving drivers of emerging infectious disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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17 pages, 325 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ross River Virus Infection: A Cross-Disciplinary Review with a Veterinary Perspective

by Ka Y. Yuen and Helle Bielefeldt-Ohmann

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030357 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5306

Abstract

Ross River virus (RRV) has recently been suggested to be a potential emerging infectious disease worldwide. RRV infection remains the most common human arboviral disease in Australia, with a yearly estimated economic cost of $4.3 billion. Infection in humans and horses can cause chronic, long-term debilitating arthritogenic illnesses. However, current knowledge of immunopathogenesis remains to be elucidated and is mainly inferred from a murine model that only partially resembles clinical signs and pathology in human and horses. The epidemiology of RRV transmission is complex and multifactorial and is further complicated by climate change, making predictive models difficult to design. Establishing an equine model for RRV may allow better characterization of RRV disease pathogenesis and immunology in humans and horses, and could potentially be used for other infectious diseases. While there are no approved therapeutics or registered vaccines to treat or prevent RRV infection, clinical trials of various potential drugs and vaccines are currently underway. In the future, the RRV disease dynamic is likely to shift into temperate areas of Australia with longer active months of infection. Here, we (1) review the current knowledge of RRV infection, epidemiology, diagnostics, and therapeutics in both humans and horses; (2) identify and discuss major research gaps that warrant further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

Other

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14 pages, 3090 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Sylvatic Canine Morbillivirus in Captive Panthera Highlights Viral Promiscuity and the Need for Better Prevention Strategies

by Mainity Batista Linhares, Herbert E. Whiteley, Jonathan P. Samuelson, Shih Hsuan Hsiao, Adam W. Stern, Ian T. Sprandel, Patrick J. Roady, David A. Coleman, Rebecca Rizzo, S. Fred Froderman and Karen A. Terio

Pathogens 2021, 10(5), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10050544 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3816

Abstract

Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) is a multi-host morbillivirus that infects virtually all Carnivora and a few non-human primates. Here we describe a CDV outbreak in an exotic felid rescue center that led to the death of eight felids in the genus Panthera. Similar to domestic dogs and in contrast to previously described CDV cases in Panthera, severe pneumonia was the primary lesion and no viral antigens or CDV-like lesions were detected in the central nervous system. Four tigers succumbed to opportunistic infections. Viral hemagglutinin (H)-gene sequence was up to 99% similar to strains circulating contemporaneously in regional wildlife. CDV lesions in raccoons and skunk were primarily encephalitis. A few affected felids had at least one previous vaccination for CDV, while most felids at the center were vaccinated during the outbreak. Panthera sharing a fence or enclosure with infected conspecifics had significantly higher chances of getting sick or dying, suggesting tiger-tiger spread was more likely than recurrent spillover. Prior vaccination was incomplete and likely not protective. This outbreak highlights the need for further understanding of CDV epidemiology for species conservation and public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Surveillance and Control of Infectious Diseases)

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